Class 12 Biology - Chapter 5: Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Extremely Detailed NCERT-Based Notes (2025-26 Edition)
🧬 5.1 THE DNA
• Definition: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a long chain polymer of deoxyribonucleotides that
functions as the hereditary material in most organisms.
• Each deoxyribonucleotide unit contains:
• A nitrogenous base: Purines (Adenine & Guanine), Pyrimidines (Cytosine & Thymine)
• A deoxyribose sugar (5-carbon sugar)
• A phosphate group
Types of Nitrogenous Bases
• Purines (Double-ring structures): Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines (Single-ring structures): Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) in DNA, Uracil (U) replaces T in RNA
Nucleoside vs Nucleotide
• Nucleoside = Nitrogenous base + Sugar (e.g., Adenosine, Guanosine)
• Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphate group (e.g., dATP, dGTP)
Polynucleotide Chain
• Nucleotides are joined via 3'-5' phosphodiester bonds, creating a sugar-phosphate backbone with
nitrogenous bases projecting inward.
• Ends of chain:
• 5’ end: Has a free phosphate group on the 5th carbon of sugar
• 3’ end: Has a free hydroxyl group on the 3rd carbon
Chargaff's Rule
• [A] = [T], [G] = [C]
• Purines = Pyrimidines in a DNA molecule
Double Helix Model (Watson and Crick, 1953)
• Proposed based on X-ray diffraction studies by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins.
• Structure:
• Two antiparallel polynucleotide chains
• Right-handed helix
• Uniform diameter of 2 nm
• 10 base pairs per turn of helix (pitch = 3.4 nm)
• Distance between two adjacent base pairs = 0.34 nm
• Base pairs held by hydrogen bonds: A=T (2 bonds), G≡C (3 bonds)
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Stability of DNA
• Base stacking (hydrophobic interactions)
• Complementary base pairing
• Hydrogen bonds between bases
Packaging of DNA in Cells
• Prokaryotes (e.g., E. coli):
• Circular DNA not enclosed in a nucleus
• DNA is negatively charged and organized into loops held by basic proteins (not histones)
• Eukaryotes:
• Linear DNA is complexed with histone proteins to form nucleosomes
• Histone octamer = 2 copies each of H2A, H2B, H3, H4
• 146 bp of DNA wraps around histone octamer → forms core nucleosome
• Linker DNA (~54 bp) between nucleosomes
• Appears as beads-on-a-string under electron microscope
• Further coiling forms chromatin → loops → solenoid → scaffold → chromosome
• Types of Chromatin:
• Euchromatin: Loosely packed, transcriptionally active
• Heterochromatin: Densely packed, transcriptionally inactive
🔍 5.2 SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL
Criteria for Genetic Material
1. Ability to replicate
2. Chemical and structural stability
3. Storage of information
4. Ability to undergo mutations
5. Expression of information (phenotype)
Griffith’s Experiment (1928)
• Worked on Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice.
• Strains:
• S strain: Smooth, virulent due to polysaccharide capsule
• R strain: Rough, non-virulent
• Observation:
• Heat-killed S + Live R → Mouse died
• Conclusion: Some transforming principle from S strain converted R to virulent form
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Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944)
• Isolated various macromolecules (DNA, RNA, protein) from S strain
• Treated them with respective enzymes:
• Protease (removes protein)
• RNase (removes RNA)
• DNase (removes DNA)
• Only DNase-treated sample failed to transform R strain
• Conclusion: DNA is the transforming principle and thus, genetic material
Hershey and Chase Experiment (1952)
• Used T2 bacteriophage and E. coli
• Labelled:
• DNA with ^32P (phosphorus)
• Protein coat with ^35S (sulfur)
• After infection:
• ^32P was found in bacterial cells
• ^35S remained outside
• Conclusion: DNA entered the host cell and directed viral replication
DNA vs RNA as Genetic Material
• DNA is:
• More stable due to lack of 2'-OH group
• Double-stranded
• Has thymine which is more stable than uracil
• RNA:
• Single-stranded
• Unstable, reactive due to 2'-OH group
• Functions as genetic material in viruses (TMV, Retroviruses)
🧪 5.3 RNA WORLD
• RNA world hypothesis: RNA was the first genetic material
• Properties:
• Stores genetic information
• Catalytic activity (acts as ribozyme)
• DNA evolved due to the instability of RNA
• Ribozymes (RNA enzymes) discovered by Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman
🔁 5.4 DNA REPLICATION
Watson and Crick Model
• Semiconservative replication: Each new DNA has one parent and one new strand
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Meselson and Stahl Experiment (1958)
• E. coli grown in ^15N (heavy) medium → transferred to ^14N (light) medium
• DNA extracted at different time intervals
• Centrifugation in CsCl gradient
• Result:
• 1st generation: Hybrid DNA
• 2nd generation: 50% light DNA + 50% hybrid DNA
• Confirmed semiconservative nature
Enzymes in DNA Replication
• Helicase: Unwinds the double helix
• SSB (Single-Strand Binding proteins): Prevent reannealing
• Primase: Synthesizes RNA primer
• DNA polymerase III: Adds nucleotides in 5'→3' direction
• DNA polymerase I: Replaces RNA primers with DNA
• Ligase: Joins Okazaki fragments on lagging strand
• Topoisomerase (Gyrase in prokaryotes): Removes supercoils
Leading vs Lagging Strand
• Leading strand: Continuous synthesis in 5'→3'
• Lagging strand: Discontinuous synthesis via Okazaki fragments
Origin of Replication
• Specific DNA sequence where replication begins
• Prokaryotes: Single origin (OriC)
• Eukaryotes: Multiple origins
✍️ 5.5 TRANSCRIPTION
• Process of copying genetic information from DNA to RNA
• Only one of the two DNA strands acts as template
Transcription Unit
1. Promoter: Binding site for RNA polymerase (upstream of coding region)
2. Structural gene: Contains coding sequence
3. Terminator: Signals the end of transcription
Template vs Coding Strand
• Template strand: 3' → 5' direction, used to make RNA
• Coding strand: 5' → 3' direction, same sequence as RNA (except T for U)
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Types of RNAs
• mRNA: Messenger RNA; carries genetic code for proteins
• tRNA: Transfer RNA; brings amino acids, has anticodon
• rRNA: Ribosomal RNA; forms structural and catalytic part of ribosomes
• snRNA: Small nuclear RNA; involved in RNA splicing
Transcription in Prokaryotes
• RNA Polymerase: Single enzyme with multiple subunits
• σ (sigma) factor: Initiates binding to promoter
• ρ (rho) factor: Terminates transcription
• Coupled transcription-translation: No nuclear membrane
Transcription in Eukaryotes
• RNA Polymerase I → rRNA
• RNA Polymerase II → mRNA (hnRNA)
• RNA Polymerase III → tRNA, 5S rRNA, snRNA
Post-transcriptional Modifications (in eukaryotes):
1. Capping: 7-methyl guanosine cap at 5’ end
2. Tailing: Poly-A tail (200–300 A residues) at 3’ end
3. Splicing: Removal of introns, joining of exons
(...continued in next message with remaining sections: Genetic Code, Translation, Gene Regulation, HGP,
DNA Fingerprinting...)
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