Mode Choice 5 AIMS OF ROUTE/TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT LINK PERFORMANCE FUNCTION

R2 - e is that aspect of the demand analysis process that 1. Estimate traffic volumes and flows • Expressed using the following formula, which the Bureau
determines the number (or percentage) of trips between 2. Determine travel costs and routes of Public Roads (BPR) used as a standard and is commonly
zones that are made by automobile and by transit. 3. Evaluate network-wide performance adopted as the default in most modeling packages to
Types of Mode Choice Models 4. Analyze O-D patterns represent this relationship:
1. Direct Generation Models - Transit trips can be 5. Support future planning and Design • 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜[1 + 0.15( 𝑉/ 𝐶 )^ 4 ]
generated directly, by estimating either total person trips or 4 STEPS OF CONVENTIONAL TRANSPORTATION • t = travel time on the link • to = free-flow travel time
auto driver trips. This method assumes that the attributes FORECASTING MODEL • V = volume on the link
of the system are not relevant. Factors such as travel time, 1. NETWORK REPRESENTATION – The transportation • C = capacity on the link
cost, and convenience are not considered. network is represented as a graph consisting of nodes • However, the capacity restraint relationship can be
2. Trip End Models - To determine the percentage of total (representing locations such as intersections, origins, and generalized by allowing the coefficients tobe adjusted to
person or auto trips that will use transit, estimates are destinations) and links (representing road segments or corridor-specific or roadway-type
made prior to the trip distribution phase based on land-use transportation corridors connecting nodes) • 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒐 [𝟏+∝ ( 𝑽/𝑪 )^ 𝜷 ]
or socioeconomic characteristics of the zone. This method 2. TRIP DISTRIBUTION – Before traffic assignment occur, • ∝ and 𝜷 = link or roadway-type specific parameters
does not incorporate the quality of service. The procedure trip distribution models estimate the number of trips EQUILIBRIUM ASSIGNMENT
follows: between different origins and destinations within the study • Refers to the process of predicting how traffic distributed
1. Generate total person trip productions area. This step determines the overall demand for travel itself across a network, particularly under congested
and attractions by trip purpose. between various locations conditions
2. Compute the urban travel factor. 3. ROUTE CHOICE MODELS – Stimulates how travelers • This topic is grounded in foundational theories, most
3. Determine the percentage of these trips select their routes based on factors such as travel time, notably those proposed by Wardrop in the 1950s
by transit using a mode choice curve. distance, cost, congestion, and user preferences. Different WARDROP INTRODUCES 2 KEY PRINCIPLES TO
4. Apply auto occupancy factors. 5. mathematical formulations and algorithms are used to DESCRIBE IN TRAFFIC FLOW
Distribute transit and auto trips separately. model travelers’ decision-making processes 1. User Equilibrium (First Principle): Each traveler selects a
Applied before trip distribution 4. TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT – Once route choice models are route that minimizing their personal travel cost. When
3. Trip Interchange Models - In this method, system level- established, traffic assignment algorithms allocate the equilibrium is reached, no traveler can reduce their travel
of-service variables are considered, including relative estimated trip demand onto specific routes within the time by switching routes. Thus, all used routed between an
travel time, relative travel cost, economic status of the trip transportation network. The goal is to distribute traffic flow origin destination pair have equal and minimal cost
maker, and relative travel service. Done after trip in a way that minimizes overall travel costs or congestion 2. Social Equilibrium (Second Principle): In contrast, this
distribution while satisfying capacity constraints and other network principle seeks to minimize the total or average cost across
Factors Influencing the Choice of Mode attributes all users in the network. The objective is not individual
1. Characteristics of the trip maker. ASSIGNMENT METHODS benefit but rather system-wide efficiency. Achieving this
• car availability and/or ownership. ALL-OR-NOTHING ASSIGNMENT • This method puts all may require interventions such as tolls or route restrictions
• possession of a driving license trips on the fastest route between each start and end point, to influence individual choices
• household structure without thinking about traffic. It’s a basic starting point for • To implement Wardrop’s principles, user equilibrium is
• income better traffic assignment methods often modelled using mathematical programming
• decisions made elsewhere CAPACITY RESTRAINT ASSIGNMENT • Tries to estimate • To solve the equilibrium problem, several algorithms are
2. Characteristics of the journey traffic flow by repeating all-or-nothing loadings and used, the most common of which is the Frank-Wolfe
• the trip purpose updating travel times based on congestion. But it doesn’t Algorithm
• time of the day always settle on a stable result and can bounce back and FRANK-WOLFE ALGORITHM
forth on same roads • This iterative method starts with an initial estimate of
• whether the trip is undertaken alone or
EQUILIBRIUM ASSIGNMENT • Spreads traffic so that no travel cost, assigns flows using an all-ornothing approach,
with others.
driver can save time by changing routes. It assumes ad updates route flows in each iteration to minimize the
3. Characteristics of the transport facility
everyone picks the fastest path, and all used routes take total system cost
• components of travel time
about the same time. This helps create a balanced and OTHER METHODS:
• components of monetary costs
realistic traffic flow • Path-Based Assignment: Focuses on route flows rather
• availability and cost of parking
DYNAMIC TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT • Shows how traffic than link flows. It is more precise but requires greater
• reliability of travel time and regularity of changes over time. It looks at when and where drivers memory
service. travel, and how travel times change with traffic during the • Origin-Based Assignment: Introduces an intermediate
• comfort and convenience day. This helps model traffic more realistically, especially solution space using approach proportions per origin
• safety, protection, security during rush hours. • Relative Gap Formula checks how close the current
• the demands of the driving task EVALUATION AND CALIBRATION • After traffic assignment solution is to the theoretical equilibrium
• opportunities to undertake other activities is completed, the resulting traffic flow patterns are
during travel evaluated to assess network performance, such as
congestion levels, travel times, and system efficiency STOCHASTIC USER EQULIBRIUM (SUE)
• Addresses variability in driver perception
Logit Models • Unlike the deterministic assumption in Wardrop’s model,
R2 - An alternative approach used in transportation SCENARIO ANALYSIS • Transportation planners and SUE acknowledges that different users perceive costs
demand analysis is to consider the relative utility of each engineering use traffic assignment models to conduct differently
mode as a summation of each modal attribute. Then the scenario analysis and evaluate the impact of proposed • The Method of Successive Averages (MSA) is often
choice of a mode is expressed as a probability distribution infrastructure projects, transportation policies, or land use employed to find SUE • While the method is theoretically
changes on traffic flow patterns, congestions, and overall sound, its convergence is slower especially in congested
system performance networks
Ux = utility of mode x DYNAMIC TRAFFIC ASSIGNMENT
n = number of attributes ALL-OR-NOTHING ASSIGNMENT • This is about how traffic moves and chooses routes when
Xi = attribute value (time, cost, and so forth) • The simplest route choice and assignment method congestion levels are constantly changing throughout the
ai = coefficient value for attributes i (negative, since the • This method assumes that there are no congestion day
values are disutilities) effects, that all drivers consider the same attributed for • Unlike traditional models that assume steady traffic, DTA
If two modes, auto (A) and transit (T), are being considered, route choice and that they perceive and weigh them in the tries to capture the real-world ebb and flow of vehicles
the probability of selecting the auto mode A can be written same way BASIC RULES OF DTA MODEL
as • The absence of congestion effects means that link costs 1. Positivity: Traffic flows, routes, and costs must always be
are fixed; the assumption that all drivers perceive the same positive
costs means that every driver i (origin) to j (destination) 2. Conservation: Vehicles entering and leaving a section
Borrowing Utility Functions from Other Sources must choose the same route must balance out
Utilityi = b(IVTT) + c(OVTT) + d(COST) • Therefore, all drivers are assigned to one route between i 3. FIFO (First in, First Out): Cars should generally exit a road
Where. and j and no driver is assigned to other, less attractive in the order they entered
routes 4. Minimum Travel Time: Travel doesn’t happen instantly
TWO BASIC VARIATION 5. Finite Clearing Time: We assume queues eventually
PAIR-BY-PAIR • This is probably the simplest but not clear; delays don’t last forever
Modifying a Logit Model For Changes in Service necessarily the most efficient method. Starts from an 6. Capacity: Roads have limits; actual traffic can’t exceed
Parameters origin and take each destination in turn. First, we initialize them
all VA,B = 0. Then for each pair (i,j): 7. Causality: Current delays are affected by past actions,
1. Set B to the destination j; not future ones.
2. If (A,B) is the backlink of B then increment VA,B by Tij, i.e. DYNAMIC USER EQUILIBRIUM
Stated Preference Surveys make VA,B = VA,B + Tij, • A core idea in Dynamic Traffic Assignment
Stated Preference surveys are used when actual market 3. Set B to A; • Imagine drivers trying to find the quickest route. In a
data is unavailable or insufficient for understanding travel 4. If A = i, terminate (i.e. process the next (i,j) pair), dynamic system, this means at any given moment, drivers
behavior otherwise return to step 2 on used routes experience equal travel times, and no
SP Methods ONCE-THROUGH • Sometimes called a cascade method unused route would be faster
1. Contingent Valuation - Elicits willingness but cannot as it loads accumulated flow from nodes to links following TWO SIMULATION APPROACHES IN SOLVING DTA
isolate values for individual to-pay (WTP) fora policy or the minimum cost trees from an origin PROBLEMS
product as a whole attributes. • VB = the total number of trips from i passing through node 1. Meso-simulation: This approach sits somewhere
2. Conjoint Analysis - Captures preferences for specific B en rote to destinations further away from i between highlevel, aggregate models and highly detailed
attributes by asking respondents to rate or rank options. Advantages individual models. It uses mathematical relationships, like
3. Stated Choice - Respondents select one option among a 1. Very Simple to Understand and Apply speed-flow curves and queueing formulas, to represent
set of alternatives. This approach avoids the pitfalls of CV 2. Fast and Easy to Compute how these groups move and interact on the network.
and CA and closely mimics real market behavior 3. Good for Initial Traffic Flow Estimates 2. Micro-simulation: This is the most detailed approach.
Survey Process 4. Useful as a Starting Point for Advanced Models Unlike meso-simulation, microsimulation models every
• Clarify Study Objectives and Define 5. Does not Require Iteration or Flow Updates single vehicle individually. It simulates the precise
Objects of Interest Disadvantages movements of each car and truck, taking into account
• Define Experimental Assumptions 1. Ignores Congestion Effects detailed driver behaviors such as lane changing decisions,
Generate 2. Assumes All Drivers Choose the Same Path gap acceptance at intersections, and acceleration/
• Experimental Design 3. Not Accurate for Urban or Congested Networks deceleration.
• Post-Design Testing 4. Does Not Reflect Load Balancing
• Conduct Questionnaire CAPACITY RESTRAINT ASSIGNMENT TECHNIQUE
QUALITY ISSUES IN SP SURVEYS • Attempts to approximate an equilibrium solution by
• The realism of the hypothetical scenarios iterating between all-or-nothing traffic loadings and
must be preserved recalculating link travel times based on a congestion
• Cutting corners to save costs can lead to function that reflects link capacity
flawed models • A modification of the all-ornothing assignment
• The combination of SP and RP data is • The no. of trips assigned to a link is compared with its
often advised to improve model capacity to determine how link travel times are increased
robustness by the additional volume.
• Analysts must ensure the decision
context mimics real world constraints to
avoid overidealized outcome
COST-FLOW FUNCTION GROUP 9
𝑪(𝑽𝒂 ) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏𝑽𝒂^𝒏 Queuing models are derived from underlying assumptions
• C(Va) = Cost (e.g. travel time or delay) on link a as a regarding arrival patterns, departure characteristics, and Analysis procedure that provides for the determination
function of flow queue disciplines. of capacity or level are
• Va = Flow (number of vehicles) on link a
• a0,a1 = Coefficients derived from simulation (constants) PURPOSE OF TRAFFIC QUEUING MODELS 1. Flow
• n = Exponent that defines how delay increases with flow 2. Distribution of traffic
(usually > 1, showing congestion effects 1. to provide a means 3. Geometric characteristics
EQUILIBRIUM AND SIMULATION 2. to estimate important measures of 4. Signalization System
• In urban traffic networks, especially those that are busy highway performance
and well-connected, there's a challenge when trying to 3. including vehicle delay and traffic queue DEFINITIONS OF SOME COMMON TERMS
accurately simulate traffic delays while also maintaining a lengths, and PERMITTED TURNING MOVEMENTS- is made within gaps
balanced (equilibrium) flow across the network. 4. traffic operations control of opposing traffic stream or through a conflicting
• In traffic modeling, we want to assign vehicles to different pedestrian flow.
routes so that no one can improve their travel time by What Are Highway Bottlenecks-Highway bottlenecks are PROTECTED TURNS- are those protected from any
switching routes, this is called equilibrium. sections of road with lower capacity than incoming areas, conflicts with vehicles in an opposing stream or
leading to congestion. This is often due to pedestrians on a conflicting crosswalk.
THE SATURN TRAFFIC MODEL fewer lanes or narrower shoulders. YELLOW CHANGE AND RED CLEARANCE INTERVAL- is
• This traffic model is widely recognized and powerful tool the sum of the intervals (given in seconds) that are
used in urban traffic planning and analysis. It is developed TWO MAIN TYPES OF BOTTLENECKS provided between phases to allow vehicular and
to handle the complexities of large-scale road networks pedestrian traffic to clear the intersection before
HOW SATURN HANDLES COMPLEX TRAFFIC 1. Recurring Bottlenecks-These conflicting movement are released.
MODELING? arepredictable,caused by the highway's
design (e.g., a permanent lane
•
• Diagonalization: SATURN tries to simplify the cost-delay
relationships drop).Traffic regularly exceeds capacity. GEOMETRIC CONDITION- is a term used
• Calibration: This helps calibrate a cost-flow curve that to describe the roadway
only depends on Va characteristics of the approach.
• Equilibrium Assignment: SATURN performs a Wardrop
Equilibrium Assignment
2. Incident-Induced Bottlenecks- These
are • SIGNALIZATION CONDITIONS- is the
• Repeat the Cycle: This cycle of simulation and unanticipated and term used to describe the signal
assignment is repeated until a stable solution is reach temporary, resulting operation.
THE SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURE OF SATURN
• It combines the detailed understanding of traffic flow
from events like
accidents or • FLOW RATE V/S - projected demand (v)
from its simulation with the route-choice behavior from its breakdowns. Their on an approach or lane group to the
assignment capacity can change saturation flow rate (s).
NON-SEPARABLE DELAY FUNCTIONS
𝑪𝒂 = 𝑪𝒂(𝑽𝟏, 𝑽𝟐, . . . , 𝑽𝒂, . . . , 𝑽𝒏)
as the incident clears.
• LANE GROUP- consists of one or more
lanes that have a common stop line,
• Ca = Cost or delay on link a • V1,V2,...,Vn = Flows (traffic Level of Service (LOS): A qualitative rating system from A
carry a set of traffic streams. and
volumes) on all links in the network (best) to F (worst) used to describe operational conditions
whose capacity is shared by all
and driver comfort.
vehicles in the group.
GROUP 8
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
mathematical relationships among the primary elements
Capacity: The maximum sustainable flow rate (vehicles
per hour) under ideal roadway, traffic, and control
• AN ANALYSIS PERIOD (T)- is the time
intervals selected to evaluate an
of a traffic stream: flow, density, and speed. conditions. intersection by applying the
Used in design to determine adequate lane lengths for procedure once.
storing left-turn vehicles on separate left-turn lanes, the TWO-LANE HIGHWAY
average delay at intersections and freeway ramp merging
areas, and changes in the level of freeway performance
CLASSIFICATIONS • THE STUDY PERIOD- is the time period
for which the results of the analysis
due to the installation of improved vehicular control 1. Class I Highways: Used for longer trips are applicable and may consist of
devices on ramps. where maintaining high one or more consecutive analysis
TRAFFIC STREAMS speeds is important (e.g., intercity highwa periods.
-Can be characterized by a number of different operational ys).
performance measures. 2. Class II Highways: Travel is typically • REST IN WALK MODE- enable for a
TYPES OF FLOW: shorter and speed is less critical phase, this mode will dwell in walk
1. Interrupted Flow- Traffic streams that (e.g., rural or scenic routes except when there are conflicting
operate under the influence of signals and calls.
stop signs.
2. Uninterrupted Flow- • PEDESTRIAN CLEAR INTERVAL (PC)-
• A traffic stream that operates free from LOS CRITERIA FOR sometimes known as the pedestrian
the TWO-LANE HIGHWAYS who leaves the curb during the walk
influence of such traffic control devices interval to arrive at the opposite curb
as signals 1. LOSA- Very low volumes, or median.
and stop signs. free flow, little or no
• Freeways, multilane highways, and two- delay. Free flow,
lane <35% PTSF
highways often operate under 2. LOS B-C-Minor increases in volume,
uninterrupted flow occasional delays. 35–50% PTSF & 50– CAPACITY AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION-Capacity at a
conditions. 65% PTSF signalized intersection refers to the maximum flow rate for
3. LOS D-Minor increases in a specific lane group under current conditions, focusing on
TIME-SPACE DIAGRAM- A graph that describes the volume, occasional efficient movement through appropriate facilities.
relationship between the location of vehicles in a traffic delays.65–80%
stream and the time as the vehicles progress along the PTSF SATURATION FLOW OR SATURATION FLOW RATE- The
highway. 4. LOS F- Forced or concept of saturation flow or saturation flow rate(s) is used
PRIMARY ELEMENTS OF breakdown flow. to determine capacity of a lane group. Maximum flow rate
TRAFFIC FLOW 90% PTSF on the approach or lane group that can go through the
1. FLOW 5. LOS E-Minor increases in intersection under prevailing traffic and roadway
2. DENSITY volume, occasional conditions when 100% effective green time is available.
3. SPEED delays. 80–90%
PTSF ANALYSIS LEVELS AND PERFORMANCE
DENSITY-Density (6.1) Density (k), sometimes referred to MEASURES FOR LEVEL OF
as concentration, is the number of vehicles trav eling over VARIABLES USED IN LOS SERVICE AT SIGNALIZED
a unit length of highway at an instant in time. CALCULATIONS INTERSECTIONS
1. Operational
SPEED-Speed(u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle V: Traffic volume (vehicles per hour) 2. Design
during a unit of time. It can be expressed in miles per hour PHF: Peak-Hour Factor (dimensionless); accounts for 3. Planning and preliminary engineering
(mi/h), kilometers per hour (km/h), or feet per second traffic Adjustment Factors Affecting Intersection Flow
(ft/sec).- fluctuations within the hour
TIME MEAN SPEED-arithmetic mean of the speeds of N: Number of lanes 1. The lane utilization adjustment factor-
vehicles passing a fHV: Heavy vehicle adjustment factor (accounts for buses Is used to adjust the ideal saturation flow
point on a highway during an interval of time. The time and trucks) rate
mean speed is found by: fP: Driver population adjustment factor (1.0 for 2. The pedestrian flow rate -number of
familiar drivers; >1.0 pedestrians in cross walk that interrupt
SPACE MEAN SPEED-harmonic mean of the speeds of for unfamiliar) the flow of right-turning vehicles during
vehicles passing v: Analysis flow rate (in passenger cars per hour per lane, analysis period.
a point on a highway during an interval of time. or pc/h/ln) 3. The bicycle flow rate -number of bicycles
S: Speed (typically Free-Flow Speed, in mi/h) with a travel path that results in an
TIME HEADWAY- Time headway (h) is the difference D: Density (passenger cars per mile per lane, or pc/mi/ln) interruption of the flow of right turning
between the time the front vehicles from the approach under
of a vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and the time FFS: Free-Flow Speed (mi/h), affected by geometry and consideration during the analysis period.
the roadside 4. The on-street parking maneuver rate -
front of the next vehicle arrives at that same point. conditions number of parking maneuvers per during
BFFS: Base Free-Flow Speed (ideal condition speed, the analysis period that have an impact on
SPACE HEADWAYS- Space headway (d) is the distance before the intersection leg.
between the front of a vehicle and the front of the following adjustment) 5. The local bus stopping rate-the number
vehicle and is usually expressed in feet. fLW, fLC, fM, fA: Adjustment factors for lane width, of buses per hour during analysis period
lateral clearance, that block traffic by stopping embarking or
The time between the passage of the front bumpers of median type, and access points respectively disembarking passengers within 250ft
successive vehicles, at some designated highway point, PTSF: Percent Time Spent Following (used for two-lane
is known as the time headway. roads) What Causes
ATS: Average Travel Speed (used for two-lane roads) Transportation Crashes?
The average traffic speed is defined in two ways. The first is PFFS: Percent of Free-Flow Speed (used for two-lane 1. Driver fell asleep at the wheel
the arithmetic mean of the vehicle speeds observed at roads) 2. Crossed the highway shoulder
some designated point along the roadway. This is referred 3. Crash into a tree
to as the time-mean speed 4. Speeding
5. Bad conditions
The second definition of speed is referred to as the space- 6. Equipment failure
mean speed 7. Driver under the influence etc.
Factors involved in transportation crashes

1. Drover Behavior
2. Vehicle
3. Road Design
4. Environment

Suggested activities that could be

included in this plan are:

• Gain Leadership Support and Initiative

• Identify a Champion
• Initiate the Development Process
• Gather Data
• Analyze Data
• Establish Working Group
• Bring Safety Partners Together
• Adopt a Strategic Goal
• Identify Key Emphasis Areas
• Form Task Groups
• Identify Key Emphasis Area Performance-
Based Goals

• Identify Strategies and Countermeasures

• Determine Priorities for Implementation
• Write SHSP
Intersections-Intersections are the most common
locations for urban motor vehicle crashes in the U.S., with
a 14% increase in crashes over 20 years.

Pedestrians-Pedestrian safety is a major concern in traffic

engineering and is addressed through education,
enforcement, and engineering.

TRAFFIC
SIGNS
These are symbols or boards placed on roads to guide,
warn,
or control drivers and pedestrians. They help keep traffic
safe
and organized by giving clear instructions.

IF THEY ARE NOT

EFFECTIVE, THEN
THE SIGNS MAY

1. Too small to notice.

2. Not easily seen nor
properly placed
3. .Have been tampered
with
4. Not clear enough to be
understood

CLASSES OF
ROAD SIGNS
1. Danger Warning Signs
2. Priority Signs
3. Prohibitory or Restrictive
Signs
4. Mandatory Signs
5. Information, facilities, or
service Signs

DANGER WARNING
SIGN
1. Priority Signs-Priority traffic signs
indicate the order in which vehicles
should pass intersection
points.
2. Prohibitory traffic signs are used to
prohibit certain types of maneuvers or
some
types of traffic
3. Mandatory signs are road signs which are
used to set the obligations of all traffic
which use a specific area of road. Unlike
prohibitory or
restrictive signs, mandatory signs tell
traffic what it must do, rather than
must not do.
4. Service signs are those that indicates a
specific facility by which many can find
useful, especially those that can be used
for medical purposes, security, and food.