English language notes

By: me khud aur Kon??

FUTURE TENCE (SIMPLE, CONTINUOUS, PERFECT)
1. Simple Future Tense
• Usage: Used to describe actions that will happen in the future.
• Structure: Subject + will/shall + base verb
• Examples:
o I will go to the market tomorrow.
o She will finish her homework by evening.
o They will visit us next week.
• Key Point: It is used for predictions, promises, or decisions made at the moment
of speaking.

2. Future Continuous Tense

• Usage: Used to describe actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the
future.
• Structure: Subject + will be + verb-ing
• Examples:
o I will be studying at 8 PM tomorrow.
o They will be playing football in the evening.
o She will be working on her project this time next week.
• Key Point: It emphasizes the ongoing nature of an action in the future.

3. Future Perfect Tense

• Usage: Used to describe actions that will be completed before a specific time or
event in the future.
• Structure: Subject + will have + past participle
• Examples:
o By next year, I will have completed my degree.
o She will have cooked dinner by the time we arrive.
o They will have left before the meeting starts.
 • Key Point: It focuses on the completion of an action before a certain point in the
future.

Summary Table:

Tense Structure Example

Simple Future Subject + will/shall + verb I will call you tomorrow.
Future
Subject + will be + verb-ing I will be traveling next week.
Continuous
Subject + will have + past I will have finished my work by 5
Future Perfect
participle PM.
Punctuation :

Punctuation refers to the marks or symbols used in writing to clarify meaning, separate
sentences, and organize ideas. Here’s a simple explanation of the most common
punctuation marks:

1. Period (.)
• Usage: Used to end a declarative sentence (a statement).
• Example: I love to read books.

2. Comma (,)
• Usage: Used to separate items in a list, clauses, or to add a pause.
• Examples:
o I bought apples, bananas, and oranges.
o After the movie, we went out for dinner.

3. Question Mark (?)

• Usage: Used at the end of a question.
• Example: What is your name?
4. Exclamation Mark (!)
• Usage: Used to express strong emotions like excitement, surprise, or anger.
• Example: Wow, that’s amazing!

5. Colon (:)
• Usage: Used to introduce a list, explanation, or quotation.
• Example: She has three hobbies: painting, dancing, and singing.

6. Semicolon (;)
• Usage: Used to connect two closely related independent clauses or to separate
items in a complex list.
• Example: I have a meeting tomorrow; I need to prepare for it.

7. Quotation Marks (“ ”)
• Usage: Used to indicate direct speech or a quotation.
• Example: She said, “I’ll be there by 5 PM.”

8. Apostrophe (’)
• Usage: Used to show possession or contraction.
• Examples:
o This is Sarah’s book. (possession)
o Don’t forget to call me. (contraction of "do not")

9. Parentheses ( ( ) )
• Usage: Used to add extra information or clarification.
• Example: My friend (who lives in Paris) is visiting me.
10. Hyphen (-)
• Usage: Used to join words or parts of words.
• Example: She is a well-known author.

11. Dash (—)

• Usage: Used to emphasize or add an interruption in a sentence.
• Example: I have three favorite colors—blue, green, and red.

12. Ellipsis (…)

• Usage: Used to indicate an omission or a pause in speech.
• Example: I was thinking… maybe we should go.

Summary Table:
Punctuation Mark Usage Example

Period (.) Ends a sentence She is reading a book.

Comma (,) Separates items or clauses I like tea, coffee, and juice.

Question Mark (?) Ends a question Where are you going?

Exclamation Mark
Expresses strong emotion What a beautiful day!
(!)

Introduces a list or Ingredients: flour, sugar,

Colon (:)
explanation eggs.

Semicolon (;) Connects related clauses I’m tired; I need to sleep.

Quotation Marks Indicates direct speech or

He said, “I’ll be late.”
(“ ”) quotation
Punctuation Mark Usage Example

Shows possession or
Apostrophe (’) It’s Sarah’s car.
contraction

My brother (the doctor) is

Parentheses ( ( ) ) Adds extra information
coming.

Joins words or parts of

Hyphen (-) She is a part-time worker.
words

Emphasizes or adds
Dash (—) I have one goal—to succeed.
interruption

Indicates omission or I was wondering… maybe we

Ellipsis (…)
pause should go.

CONJUNCTION
Conjunctions are words used to connect clauses, sentences, phrases, or words. They help in
making sentences flow smoothly and logically. There are three main types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
• Usage: Connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance.
• Common Coordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So)
• Examples:
o I wanted to go to the park, but it started raining.
o She likes tea and coffee.
o You can stay here, or you can leave.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions
• Usage: Connect a dependent clause (subordinate clause) to an independent clause.
• Common Subordinating Conjunctions: Because, Although, Since, If, When, While,
After, Before, Unless, Until, etc.
• Examples:
o I stayed home because it was raining.
 o Although she was tired, she finished her work.
o Call me when you arrive.

3. Correlative Conjunctions
• Usage: Work in pairs to connect words or phrases of equal importance.
• Common Correlative Conjunctions: Either...or, Neither...nor, Both...and, Not only...but
also, Whether...or.
• Examples:
o Either you come with me, or I’ll go alone.
o She is not only intelligent but also hardworking.
o Both my brother and my sister are coming.

Summary Table:
Type of Conjunction Function Examples

Coordinating
Connect equal parts of a sentence I like tea and coffee.
Conjunctions

Subordinating Connect dependent and independent I stayed home because it

Conjunctions clauses rained.

Correlative
Work in pairs to connect equal parts Either you or I will go.
Conjunctions

Examples in Sentences:
1. Coordinating: I wanted to play outside, but it was too hot.
2. Subordinating: Although he was late, he apologized.
3. Correlative: Neither John nor Mary attended the meeting.
ADVERB PHRASES

Adverb Phrases are groups of words that function as adverbs in a sentence. They
modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and they provide additional information
about how, when, where, why, or to what extent something happens.

Key Features of Adverb Phrases:

1. They do not contain a subject and a verb (unlike adverb clauses).
2. They often start with a preposition (e.g., in, on, at, with) or an infinitive (e.g., to
run, to eat).
3. They can appear at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence.

Types of Adverb Phrases:

1. Adverb Phrases of Time (When?)
oExample: She will arrive in a few minutes.
o Explanation: The phrase "in a few minutes" tells when she will arrive.
2. Adverb Phrases of Place (Where?)
oExample: He looked for his keys under the table.
o Explanation: The phrase "under the table" tells where he looked.
3. Adverb Phrases of Manner (How?)
oExample: She completed the project with great care.
o Explanation: The phrase "with great care" tells how she completed the
project.
4. Adverb Phrases of Reason (Why?)
oExample: He stayed home because of the rain.
o Explanation: The phrase "because of the rain" tells why he stayed home.
5. Adverb Phrases of Degree/Extent (To what extent?)
o Example: She is very much interested in the topic.
o Explanation: The phrase "very much" tells to what extent she is interested.

Examples of Adverb Phrases in Sentences:

1. Time: We will meet at noon.
2. Place: The cat is hiding in the closet.
 3. Manner: He spoke in a loud voice.
4. Reason: She left early due to the traffic.
5. Degree: The movie was extremely entertaining.

How to Identify Adverb Phrases:

1. Look for a group of words that answers questions like how, when, where, why,
or to what extent.
2. Check if the phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.
3. See if the phrase starts with a preposition or infinitive.

Summary Table:
Type of Adverb Questions
Example
Phrase Answered

Time When? She will call in the evening.

Place Where? The dog ran into the garden.

He solved the problem with

Manner How?
ease.

She cried because of the

Reason Why?
news.

Degree/Extent To what extent? He is very talented.

CLAUSES AND DEGREES OF COMPARISION

Clauses
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Clauses can be
independent (standalone sentences) or dependent (cannot stand alone).
1. Independent Clause
• Can stand alone as a complete sentence.
• Example: She went to the market.

2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause)

• Cannot stand alone and relies on an independent clause to make sense.
• Example: Because she was hungry, she went to the market.

Types of Dependent Clauses:

1. Adjective Clause: Describes a noun.
o Example: The book that I borrowed is interesting.
2. Adverb Clause: Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb (answers how, when, where,
why).
oExample: When the bell rings, we will leave.
3. Noun Clause: Acts as a noun (subject, object, or complement).
o Example: What she said surprised everyone.

Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of comparison are used to compare the qualities of nouns (people, things, or
places). There are three degrees:

1. Positive Degree
• Used to describe one person or thing without comparison.
• Example: She is tall.

2. Comparative Degree
• Used to compare two people or things.
• Example: She is taller than her sister.
3. Superlative Degree
• Used to compare three or more people or things.
• Example: She is the tallest in her class.

Rules for Forming Degrees of Comparison:

1. For short adjectives (1-2 syllables):
oPositive: tall
o Comparative: taller (add -er)
o Superlative: tallest (add -est)
2. For long adjectives (3+ syllables):
oPositive: beautiful
o Comparative: more beautiful (use more)
o Superlative: most beautiful (use most)
3. Irregular Forms:
o Positive: good
o Comparative: better
o Superlative: best

Examples of Degrees of Comparison:

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

Small Smaller Smallest

Big Bigger Biggest

Happy Happier Happiest

Intelligent More intelligent Most intelligent

Bad Worse Worst

Summary Table for Clauses:
Type of Clause Description Example

Independent She went to the

Can stand alone as a sentence
Clause market.

Because she was

Dependent Clause Cannot stand alone
hungry

The book that I

Adjective Clause Describes a noun
borrowed

Modifies a verb, adjective, or

Adverb Clause When the bell rings
adverb

Noun Clause Acts as a noun What she said

Summary Table for Degrees of Comparison:

Degree Usage Example

Positive Degree Describes one thing She is tall.

Comparative She is taller than her

Compares two things
Degree sister.

Compares three or more She is the tallest in her

Superlative Degree
things class.
TYPES OF SENTENCES

Sentences can be categorized into four main types based on their purpose and
structure. Here's a simple explanation:
1. Declarative Sentences
• Purpose: Used to make statements or express ideas.
• Structure: Subject + Verb + Object (if any).
• Punctuation: Ends with a period (.).
• Examples:
o The sun rises in the east.
o She loves to read books.

2. Interrogative Sentences
• Purpose: Used to ask questions.
• Structure: Often starts with a question word (who, what, where, when, why, how)
or an auxiliary verb (is, are, do, does, etc.).
• Punctuation: Ends with a question mark (?).
• Examples:
o What is your name?
o Are you coming to the party?

3. Imperative Sentences
• Purpose: Used to give commands, instructions, or requests.
• Structure: Often starts with a verb (the subject "you" is usually implied).
• Punctuation: Ends with a period (.) or an exclamation mark (!) for strong
commands.
• Examples:
o Close the door.
o Please pass the salt.
o Stop!

4. Exclamatory Sentences
• Purpose: Used to express strong emotions like surprise, excitement, or anger.
• Structure: Often starts with "What" or "How" or is a declarative sentence with
strong emotion.
• Punctuation: Ends with an exclamation mark (!).
 • Examples:
o What a beautiful day!
o I can’t believe we won!
o How amazing this is!

Summary Table:
Type of
Purpose Punctuation Examples
Sentence

Makes a
Declarative Period (.) The sky is blue.
statement

What is your
Interrogative Asks a question Question mark (?)
favorite color?

Gives a command Period (.) or Please sit down. /

Imperative
or request Exclamation mark (!) Stop!

Expresses strong What a wonderful

Exclamatory Exclamation mark (!)
emotion surprise!

Additional Notes:
• Declarative sentences are the most common type.
• Interrogative sentences can be yes/no questions or open-ended questions.
• Imperative sentences can be polite (with "please") or direct (without "please").
• Exclamatory sentences are often short and emotional.

REPORTED SPEECH
Reported Speech (also called Indirect Speech) is used to report what someone else
has said without quoting their exact words. It involves changing the tense, pronouns,
and other elements of the original statement. Here's a detailed explanation,
including WH-questions and reported statements:
Rules for Reported Speech
1. Change of Tenses:
oPresent Simple → Past Simple
o Present Continuous → Past Continuous
o Present Perfect → Past Perfect
o Past Simple → Past Perfect
o Will → Would
o Can → Could
o May → Might
2. Change of Pronouns:
oI → He/She
o We → They
o You → He/She/They
o My → His/Her
o Our → Their
3. Change of Time and Place Words:
o Today → That day
o Now → Then
o Here → There
o Tomorrow → The next day
o Yesterday → The day before

Reported Statements
When reporting statements, use "that" (optional) to introduce the reported clause.

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She said, "I am tired."
o Reported Speech: She said (that) she was tired.
2. Direct Speech: He said, "I will call you later."
o Reported Speech: He said (that) he would call me later.
Reported WH-Questions
When reporting WH-questions (who, what, where, when, why, how), follow these steps:

1. Remove the question mark.

2. Change the question word order to a statement word order.
3. Use the reporting verb (e.g., asked, wondered).

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She asked, "Where are you going?"
o Reported Speech: She asked where I was going.
2. Direct Speech: He asked, "What is your name?"
o Reported Speech: He asked what my name was.
3. Direct Speech: They asked, "Why did you leave early?"
o Reported Speech: They asked why I had left early.

Reported Yes/No Questions

When reporting yes/no questions, use "if" or "whether" to introduce the reported
clause.

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She asked, "Are you coming?"
o Reported Speech: She asked if I was coming.
2. Direct Speech: He asked, "Do you like pizza?"
o Reported Speech: He asked whether I liked pizza.

Reported Commands and Requests

When reporting commands or requests, use "to" for positive commands and "not
to" for negative commands.

Examples:
 1. Direct Speech: She said, "Close the door."
o Reported Speech: She told me to close the door.
2. Direct Speech: He said, "Don’t be late."
o Reported Speech: He told me not to be late.

Summary Table
Type Direct Speech Reported Speech

Statement She said, "I am busy." She said (that) she was busy.

He asked, "Where do you

WH-Question He asked where I lived.
live?"

Yes/No She asked, "Are you

She asked if I was coming.
Question coming?"

He said, "Open the He told me to open the

Command
window." window.

Request She said, "Please help me." She asked me to help her.

Examples with All WH-Questions

1. Who:
o Direct: She asked, "Who is your teacher?"
o Reported: She asked who my teacher was.
2. What:
Direct: He asked, "What are you doing?"
o
o Reported: He asked what I was doing.
3. Where:
o Direct: They asked, "Where did you go?"
o Reported: They asked where I had gone.
4. When:
o Direct: She asked, "When will you return?"
o Reported: She asked when I would return.
 5. Why:
o Direct: He asked, "Why are you crying?"
o Reported: He asked why I was crying.
6. How:
o Direct: She asked, "How did you solve the problem?"
o Reported: She asked how I had solved the problem.

CONNECTORS
Reported Speech (also called Indirect Speech) is used to report what someone else has said
without quoting their exact words. It involves changing the tense, pronouns, and other elements of
the original statement. Here's a detailed explanation, including WH-questions and reported
statements:

Rules for Reported Speech

1. Change of Tenses:
oPresent Simple → Past Simple
oPresent Continuous → Past Continuous
oPresent Perfect → Past Perfect
oPast Simple → Past Perfect
oWill → Would
oCan → Could
oMay → Might
2. Change of Pronouns:
oI → He/She
oWe → They
oYou → He/She/They
oMy → His/Her
oOur → Their
3. Change of Time and Place Words:
o Today → That day
o Now → Then
o Here → There
o Tomorrow → The next day
o Yesterday → The day before
Reported Statements
When reporting statements, use "that" (optional) to introduce the reported clause.

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She said, "I am tired."
o Reported Speech: She said (that) she was tired.
2. Direct Speech: He said, "I will call you later."
o Reported Speech: He said (that) he would call me later.

Reported WH-Questions
When reporting WH-questions (who, what, where, when, why, how), follow these steps:

1. Remove the question mark.

2. Change the question word order to a statement word order.
3. Use the reporting verb (e.g., asked, wondered).

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She asked, "Where are you going?"
o Reported Speech: She asked where I was going.
2. Direct Speech: He asked, "What is your name?"
o Reported Speech: He asked what my name was.
3. Direct Speech: They asked, "Why did you leave early?"
o Reported Speech: They asked why I had left early.

Reported Yes/No Questions

When reporting yes/no questions, use "if" or "whether" to introduce the reported clause.

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She asked, "Are you coming?"
o Reported Speech: She asked if I was coming.
2. Direct Speech: He asked, "Do you like pizza?"
o Reported Speech: He asked whether I liked pizza.
Reported Commands and Requests
When reporting commands or requests, use "to" for positive commands and "not to" for negative
commands.

Examples:
1. Direct Speech: She said, "Close the door."
o Reported Speech: She told me to close the door.
2. Direct Speech: He said, "Don’t be late."
o Reported Speech: He told me not to be late.

Summary Table
Type Direct Speech Reported Speech

Statement She said, "I am busy." She said (that) she was busy.

WH-Question He asked, "Where do you live?" He asked where I lived.

Yes/No Question She asked, "Are you coming?" She asked if I was coming.

Command He said, "Open the window." He told me to open the window.

Request She said, "Please help me." She asked me to help her.

Examples with All WH-Questions

1. Who:
o Direct: She asked, "Who is your teacher?"
o Reported: She asked who my teacher was.
2. What:
o Direct: He asked, "What are you doing?"
o Reported: He asked what I was doing.
3. Where:
o Direct: They asked, "Where did you go?"
o Reported: They asked where I had gone.
4. When:
 o Direct: She asked, "When will you return?"
o Reported: She asked when I would return.
5. Why:
o Direct: He asked, "Why are you crying?"
o Reported: He asked why I was crying.
6. How:
o Direct: She asked, "How did you solve the problem?"
o Reported: She asked how I had solved the problem.

Let me know if you need further clarification or more examples!

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CONNECTORS

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CONNECTORS

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CONNECTORS

Sure! Connectors (also called linking words or transition words) are words or phrases used to
connect ideas, sentences, or paragraphs. They help make writing or speech more coherent and
logical. Here’s a detailed explanation of connectors, categorized by their functions:

Types of Connectors

1. Adding Information
• Purpose: To add more information or ideas.
• Examples:
o And
o Also
o In addition
o Moreover
o Furthermore
o Besides
• Example Sentences:
o I love reading books, and I enjoy writing stories.
o She is intelligent; moreover, she is hardworking.
2. Contrasting Ideas
• Purpose: To show a difference or contrast between ideas.
• Examples:
o But
o However
o Although
o On the other hand
o Nevertheless
o Yet
• Example Sentences:
o I wanted to go out, but it started raining.
o She is very talented; however, she lacks confidence.

3. Showing Cause and Effect

• Purpose: To show the reason or result of something.
• Examples:
o Because
o Since
o As a result
o Therefore
o Thus
o Consequently
• Example Sentences:
o I stayed home because it was raining.
o He didn’t study; as a result, he failed the exam.

4. Showing Purpose
• Purpose: To explain the purpose or intention behind an action.
• Examples:
o So that
o In order to
o So as to
o For the purpose of
• Example Sentences:
o I woke up early so that I could catch the train.
o She studied hard in order to pass the exam.
5. Showing Time or Sequence
• Purpose: To show the order of events or time.
• Examples:
o First, second, third
o Next
o Then
o After that
o Finally
o Meanwhile
• Example Sentences:
o First, I woke up. Then, I brushed my teeth.
o She was cooking; meanwhile, I set the table.

6. Giving Examples
• Purpose: To provide examples or clarify ideas.
• Examples:
o For example
o For instance
o Such as
o Like
• Example Sentences:
o I love fruits, for example, apples and bananas.
o There are many sports, such as football, basketball, and tennis.

7. Summarizing or Concluding
• Purpose: To summarize or conclude ideas.
• Examples:
o In conclusion
o To sum up
o Overall
o In summary
• Example Sentences:
o In conclusion, we need to work harder to achieve our goals.
o To sum up, the event was a great success.
Summary Table of Connectors
Function Connectors Example Sentences

Adding
And, also, in addition, moreover I like tea, and I also like coffee.
Information

Contrasting But, however, although,

She is rich; however, she is not happy.
Ideas nevertheless

It rained; therefore, the match was

Cause and Effect Because, therefore, as a result
canceled.

So that, in order to, for the

Showing Purpose I saved money so that I could buy a car.
purpose of

Time or
First, next, then, finally First, I woke up. Then, I had breakfast.
Sequence

For example, such as, for

Giving Examples I love fruits, for example, apples.
instance

In conclusion, we must protect the

Summarizing In conclusion, to sum up, overall
environment.

Examples in Paragraphs
1. Adding Information:
o I love traveling. In addition, I enjoy learning about new cultures.
2. Contrasting Ideas:
o He is very talented. However, he doesn’t work hard.
3. Cause and Effect:
oShe studied hard. As a result, she passed the exam with flying colors.
4. Showing Purpose:
o I woke up early so that I could finish my work on time.
5. Time or Sequence:
o First, I washed the vegetables. Then, I chopped them.
6. Giving Examples:
oThere are many ways to stay healthy, for instance, exercising regularly and eating a
balanced diet.
7. Summarizing:
o To sum up, teamwork and dedication are key to success.