Unit 12 Compiled by: T.P.

NDIPWASHIMWE
Rural Development

 DESCRIBE THE TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES WITH A REFERENCE TO

HUNTERS-GATHERERS, NOMADIC PASTORALISTS AND
AGRICULTURALISTS
Rural development-is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-
being of the people living in rural areas.
Traditional society- is a group of indigenous people follow inherited customs and a
culture based lifestyle often centred around a family or tribe.

Three types of traditional societies

1. hunters and gatherers
-hunters and gatherers live in a small family groups.
- they move from one place to another looking for food.
- their movement is seasonal and is linked to the availability of food and water.
- they depend entirely on the environment
- they live in caves or shelter made out of animal skin/dung
-no permanent homes
- men hunt wild animals and women collect wild fruits
- they use bows and arrows for hunting, sharpened stones, sticks
- their tools and weapons are made from wood, plants and sharpened stones
-they poison their arrows using poison from insects and plants.
-they use simple technology
-no trading between/amongst hunters and gatherers
-food-meat, eggs, honey, fish and edible plants including seeds, fruits, roots and leaves
-clothes and shelter-fibres (cotton and wool), hides, wood
-containers, storage, nets and traps (shells for ostrich)
-medicine-plants and animals
-heating and cooking –wood and grass

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Different images illustrating hunters and gatherers
-division of labour men go for hunting and women collect wild fruits

2. Nomadic pastoralist
-move from one place to another in search for food, water and grazing land for their
animals.
-they relied on local environment
-they keep herds of animals (a mixture of goats, cattle, sheep, camels)
-their movement depends on the availability of water and grazing land
-they get products from their animals (milk, meat, skin)
- they use simple technology
-division of labour-men look after animals while women collect wild fruits and medicine
from nature, make clothing and shelter from animal skin.
-only a little use of bartering (selling milk and animal products)
- they use iron spear and cutlasses, knobkerries

Images illustrating Nomadic pastoralists

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3. Agriculturalists
- they settle in one area
- they grow crops and raise domestic animals
-they clear land by burning and cultivate (slash and burn/shifting cultivation) for several
years until the soil become infertile and production become low.
- division of labour-men clear the land and cultivate while women also cultivate, build
huts for shelter, collect water and food from the bush from the bush, further
specialization began to take place such as iron making and weaving
-use hand hoes, cutlasses and axe
-little bartering took place to obtain tools and salt
-permanent settlements were established as food supply became more reliable.
-today, many Namibians especially in the northern regions of the country, choose to live
an agriculturalist lifestyle.

Images illustrating agriculturalists

Describe how labour is used as a factor of production by traditional society.

Hunters-gatherers Nomadic Pastoralist Agriculturalists
Men hunted wild animals Men looked after the Men cleared the land
and women gathered wild animals, women gathered and cultivated, women also
fruits food and medicine from cultivated, built huts for
the natural vegetation shelter, collected water
and food from the bush

Agricultural society before colonialism

-started producing enough for their own consumption, the economy was subsistence
economy meaning self-sufficient economy and not needing outside help.
-specialisation and division of labour emerged.

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-many European countries particularly Britain, France, Belgium, Portugal and Germany
started what became scramble for Africa.
- they were scrambling for a piece of Africa and divided Africa amongst them.
- other Africans grew crops to sell and others remained subsistence farmers.
- As more men migrated to go and work for Europeans, rural communities lost their
ability to produce their own food and fulfil their basic needs.

Impact of colonialism
Colonialism-is a practice in which a powerful country directly controls a less powerful
country and uses the colonised country’s resources to increase its own power and
wealth.
-colonialism hindered rural development because colonisers were more interested on
their own growth and development than the growth of the colonised country.
-colonising countries tended to exploit the natural resources of the colonised country.
- colonisers took the best land for farming from Africans.
-people were forced to pay tax to the Europeans
-as a results African men were forced to work for whites in farms and factory for income.

Development of peasant farming and cash cropping

Peasant farming-small scale farming in developing countries, where the farmers
produce enough food to feed the family.
Cash cropping-production of crops for sale
-The main difference between peasant and cash crop farming is the purpose for which
the food is produced.
- the main purpose of agriculture is to produce food for the family, while the main
purpose for cash crops is to produce food for sale.
-cash crops are an example of commercial agriculture.
-the main crops in are pearl millet, sorghum, maize, wheat, beans, nuts and some fruit
and vegetables such as melons, grapes, tomatoes, anions etc.
-agriculture in Namibia is also based on animal farming/livestock farming.

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Seasonal agriculture
-these are the people who grow crops depending on rainfall seasons like Ovawambo,
Kavangos and Caprivians
-grow crops depending on the availability of rainfall
-depend on summer rainfall to grow their crops
Crop rotation
Growing different types of crops in succession on the same piece of land.

Advantages of crop rotation

 It breaks down the life cycle of pests and diseases
 Improve soil fertility
 High productivity/improve yield
 Prevent soil erosion
 Prevent the overutilisation of the soil
Disadvantages of crop rotation
 Soil topography is prohibited from taking and growing more than one crop in a
particular area.
 Crop rotation is not always advisable.
 Changing weather conditions and other accidents interfere with crop rotation.
 The type of soil may generally be suitable only for certain crops.
 Improper Implementation causes more harm than good.
Monoculture
When you grow one type of crop over and over on the same piece of land

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Images illustrating monoculture (sunflower farm and maize farm)

Advantages of monoculture
 The farmers become experts/skilled
 Same tools can be used
Disadvantages of monoculture
 Crops can be easily attacked by pests and diseases
 Soil may lose its fertility
 Crops can be affected by bad weather
 Vulnerable to prices falling
 You need large amount of chemicals and fertilisers

 Why do you need large amount of fertilisers and chemicals?

-fertilisers to prevent the soil from losing its fertility and chemicals to prevent your
crops from being attacked by pests and diseases.

Mixed cropping-growing different types of crops on one type land

Advantages of mixed cropping

 It reduces the risk of the failure of crops
 It enhances soil fertility
 It helps in saving farmers money
 Farmers quickly meet their family requirements

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Disadvantages of mixed cropping
 Spreading fertilisers to individual crops is difficult
 It consumed and marketed in mixed form
 Threshing and harvesting crops separately is difficult
Mixed farming
Growing crops and rearing animals on one piece of land

Advantages
 Higher productivity
 Improved soil fertility
 Diseases and pest can be easily controlled and managed
 Sustainability
 Diversification
Disadvantages
 Specialised skills are required to deal with both animals and crops at the same
time
 More workload
 High capital investment
 Diseases and pests can spread easily from animals to crops or vice versa
 Market risks-difficult to market both crops and animals at the same time

Commercial and subsistence farms

-commercial farming-a method of farming that produces crops or animals for sale,
usually on a large scale and using modern methods and equipment
-subsistence farming-the farming method of growing crops and raising livestock
sufficient only for family use, without any surplus or little surplus for marketing.

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 Subsistence farming commercial farming

Compare the differences between subsistence farming and commercial farming

Subsistence farming Commercial farming
 Crops mainly for family Crops for sale
consumption
 Work is done by family Work is done by hired workers
 Labour intensive Capital intensive
 Use simple technology Use complex technology
 Use animal manure as fertilisers Use large amount of chemicals and
fertilisers
 Land is owned by the family Land is mainly owned by family business
or MNCs
 Use seasonal agriculture or crop Specialised in monoculture
rotation
 Seeds are saved from harvest Seeds are bought
 Small farms Large farms

Different types of commercial farm

 Livestock
 Monoculture
 Mixed farming
Explain why farmers need money
 To buy fertilisers
 For transport
 To buy tools
 To build storage facilities
 To buy irrigation equipment

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  To buy seeds
 To buy machines
 To pay water bills
State three ways in which a farm could be financed
 Get a loans from government/Agribank/financial institutions
 Community contribution
 Sponsorship from business people
 Grants/subsidies from NGOs
Suggest ways by which commercial farmers can improve their livestock farming?
 Drill borehole/supplementary nutritious food
 Rotating pasture to prevent overgrazing
 Fencing areas to grow fodder crops for animals in times of drought
 Cross breeding/artificial insemination
 Joining cooperatives
 Veterinary services
 Build dipping tanks for pest control and prevention of diseases

How can modern farming methods contribute to soil erosion?

 Due to monoculture
 Artificial fertilisers
 Deforestation
 Irrigation system
Describe and explain environmental problems caused by commercial farms
 Air pollution- the use of machines/tractors release harmful gases into the
atmosphere
 Overgrazing-keeping too many animals on one area
 Water pollution-rain will wash fertilisers and pesticides into water sources
 Deforestation-cutting down of trees and leave the soil bare
 Soil erosion-when the land is not covered it can be easily washed by water or
blowing wind
Why subsistence farmers usually have small land?
 They produce to feed their family
 Land is taken by government to make parks
 Land is taken by rich farmers/unequal distribution of land
 They use simple technology
 Inheritance laws/land is distributed/divided among family members
 They are poor to have large farms
 Overpopulation

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Why subsistence farmers are likely to experience problems in marketing crops
 Lack of transport/poor access to transport
 Poor quality crops/cannot compete with richer farmers/difficulty to export
 Small quantity to sell/only produce to feed the family/produce no surplus
 Lack of knowledge of marketing
Ways in which modern farming methods increase the emission of carbon dioxide
 By the use of machinery which uses oil/diesel etc.
 By using fertilisers and pesticides which consume a great deal of power in their
manufacture
 By clearing large areas of land by burning down forests etc.
 By removing vegetation/trees which absorb CO2
 Increased production means more transport of goods to markets

The vicious circle of poverty

-it is called a vicious circle of poverty because one factor can lead to another factor
-it is difficult for peasant farmers to escape from poverty.
- they are trapped in what is known as vicious circle of poverty/poverty trap

Why it is called a vicious circle of poverty or poverty trap?

-because one factor can lead to another factor
-people are poor and do not have money to invest in improving their farming methods or
cannot buy better seeds and more animals.

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-as a result their land produces very little/low productivity
-they are short of food and they suffer from malnutrition and ill health and they become
more poor.
-once you are caught in this circle of poverty it is difficult to get out of it.
-people become more poor and they can no longer work on their land, they abandon it
or sell it and work for other farmers.
Factors contributing to Vicious circle of poverty/poverty trap
 Limited access to credit and capital markets
 Extreme environmental degradation
 Corrupt government
 Capital flight from the country
 Poor education
 Lack of public health care
 War and poor infrastructure (roads, communication and transport system)
Large scale projects
-Large scale project usually involve commercial farming.
-These projects can contribute to development in rural areas by creating jobs and
development of infrastructure.
-However, some large scale doesn’t benefit the local people especially when outside
labour are brought into the area to work on the project and also when the outputs are
not used to benefit the rural community.
Plantations
Plantation is an estate on which crops such as coffee, sugar cane or tobacco are grown.
-most of the crops are grown in plantation have a life span of more than two years.
- For that reason, many plantations are owned by large companies or governments who
have sufficient capital to wait until the plantation start yielding profits.
-Plantation require good transport and communication system to connect the plantation
to the processing industries and markets.

Characteristics of plantations
 Single crop farming
 Requires good infrastructure

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  Support secondary industries
 Both labour and capital intensive
 Crops mainly grown for the markets
 Practices on large scale
 Example of plantations in Namibia include grape vineyards along the Orange
river and date plantations.
Describe and evaluate selected development schemes and strategies used in
Southern Africa and evaluate the problems involved in their implementation:
loans and credit schemes, small scale rural projects, farmers’ cooperatives,
resettlement schemes, integrated rural development and mobilisation of rural
population, grassroots development and appropriate farming methods. projects

Rural development schemes and strategies

 Loans and credit schemes
 Small scale rural projects
 Farmers cooperatives
 Resettlement schemes
 Integrated rural development
 Green revolution
 Mobilisation of human resources for rural development
 Grassroots development
 Appropriate farming methods
The government wants to develop rural areas for a number of reasons.
 To increase food production to feed the nation
 To slow down the rate of migration to the towns
 To create markets for goods produced in towns
 For stimulate economic growth by encouraging income earning activities
 To increase rural incomes and alleviate poverty and malnutrition
 Increase the amount of cash crops and animals’ products to sell to urban areas
and export abroad.

Loans and credit schemes

-government helps farmers to borrow money from banks and credit unions at very low
interest rates.

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-if a farmer does not own land or have right to land, it become difficult for them to
borrow money from banks in order to improve their farming.
-sometimes farmers have to use their land as security for the bank in case they fail to
repay the loan.
-farmers find it very difficult to repay the loan with interest.
-in Namibia Agribank is a state owned bank in Namibia that provides loans to farmers to
buy land and livestock, improve infrastructure and facilities on their farms and help them
to grow industries such as aquaculture.
Farmers use money to:
 Buy seeds
 Buy fertilisers
 Buy tractors
 Drill boreholes
-the borrowed money must be paid back with interest.
Problems with implementation of loans and credit schemes
 Farmers who don’t own land or have right to land cannot borrow money from the
bank
 Sometimes farmers have to use their land as security for bank in case they fail to
pay the loan
 Farmers find it difficult to pay the loans with interests
 In some countries women are not allowed to own land, thus female farmers in
those countries struggle to obtain loans
Small scale rural projects
-these are programmes that aim to help people in rural areas to generate money.
-They are often directed to women because men migrate to towns/cities e.g.
-tree planting
-aquaculture
-weaving and knitting
-poultry
-pottery
-gardening
Describe self-employment projects and explain how each can earn rural people
an income

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  Brick making-making bricks for selling
 Tree planting-plant trees and sell them
 Weaving-making baskets for selling
 Craft making-making craft products from different raw materials and sell them
 Gardening-growing vegetables for selling
 Aquaculture- have a fish pond sell fish to the community
 Poultry-have chicken farm and sell them to make money
Farmers cooperatives
Is a group farmers that have joined together in order to increase their production/ a
group of farmers working together to increase their production.
Examples of farmers’ cooperative in Namibia
 Eudafano Women’s cooperative specialise in marura oil products
 Onankali Mahangu Paper making cooperative specialise in paper products from
mahangu stalks
 Klein Karas cooperative focuses on small livestock and vegetables production
Benefits of farmers’ cooperatives
 They buy in bulk
 Save on transport costs
 Have access to loans
 Access to agricultural extension offices
 They negotiate better prices for their products
 Share costs to buy equipment
 Share maintenance costs
 Reduce on storage costs

How the government can assist rural farmers to improve their farms?
 Allow them to form cooperatives/groups
 Build roads for easy transportation to the markets
 Provide cheap loans/credit facilities
 Provide government extension offices to train farmers
 Improve livestock by cross breeding/artificial insemination
 Drill boreholes for irrigation
 Provide training to the farmers
 Provide cheap seeds
 Subsidise machinery/medicine
Reasons why rural development schemes do not succeed
 Local people lack training and assistance

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  Lack of financial assistance/capital
 Lack of advanced technology/appropriate technology
 Lack of ownership
 Local people felt that the projects do not belong to them
 Mismanagement of funds/corruption
 Lack of markets/lack of customers
 Disagreement/conflict between members
Reasons why farmers in LEDCs experience problems in marketing
 Lack of transport
 Poor quality crops
 Small quantity to sell
 Lack of knowledge in marketing
Suggest ways to improve livestock farming
 Drilling boreholes/supplementary nutritious food
 Rotating pastures and range land to prevent overgrazing
 Fencing areas to grow fodder/crops for animals in times of drought
 Provide shade/fencing from predators
 Artificial insemination/cross breeding
 Joining cooperatives
 Veterinary services/vaccination

Resettlement schemes
Land reform-is the re-allocation of land to the landless people.
-the aim is to promote sustainable development by providing enough land to the farmers
to harvest sufficient produce to feed the family and have extra left over to sell and
create an income.
-this can reduce poverty and malnutrition, create employment and reduce urbanisation.

Advantages if it is being implemented in Namibia

-give farmers secure right to own land
-give women or landless people rights to own land
-it enables farmers to afford new farming methods

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Disadvantages of land reform and resettlement
 No foreign currency
 Commercial farms are more productive than small peasants that replaces them
 Country loses its wealth
 Low productivity
 High unemployment rate
 Food security can be affected
 People are displaced to areas where they may find it difficult to adapt
What does the land act state about women’s land right?
Women are entitled to equal land right
How private ownership of the land influence the wealth?
 Commercial farmers create jobs/subsistence don’t create jobs
 Commercial farmers pay tax to the government/subsistence don’t pay tax to the
government
 More subsistence farmers produce enough to feed their family and surplus to the
local markets
 Commercial farmers focus more on export and earn foreign currency (boost the
economy of the country)
 Land may belong to small group of people and majority may be landless

Integrated rural development

Is bringing together all aspects of rural life to stimulate rural growth/rural areas often
lack facilities, education, transport and all kind of activities
The aim
-to improve all aspects of rural life and stimulate economic growth
-to reduce poverty
-to reduce the dependence on urban economies
-to provide basic social services
-to modernising farming
How to improve rural life/how to integrate rural development?
 Improve roads and transport
 Improve health services
 Improve literacy and education
 Introduce new cash crops

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  Improve water supplies
 Improve local food crops
 Give people training to improve their farming
 Establish co-operatives/government extension offices
 Improve water supply
Why government experiences problems in implementation of rural development?
 Shortage of land
 Shortage of facilities
 Shortage of markets
 Lack of skilled labour
 Lack of money
Infrastructure needed to make rural development effective
 Roads
 Telecommunication
 Electricity
 Small dams for water supply

Green revolution
The new methods of farming to increase crop yield.
Types of machinery used in green revolution
 Tractor
 Sprayers
 Combined harvesters
 Irrigation machines
Why farmers that use green revolution may need credit?
 To buy seeds
 To buy fertilisers
 To buy pesticides and herbicides
 To pay for transport costs
 To buy machines
 To pay for water bills

Economic difficulties the farmers may experience or face when using green
revolution
 They need money to fence the land

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  The seeds need to be replaced every year and they are expensive
 The machineries are expensive to buy and maintain
 Don’t have enough money to buy fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides
 They may lose their land because they are unable to pay back the borrowed
money
 Not able to borrow money
Describe environmental problems caused by green revolution
 Soil erosion-degradation caused by overuse of land
 Water pollution-caused by pesticides, fertilisers that are entering the water
 Deforestation-caused by clearing of the land for farming using modern machinery
 Loss of biodiversity-loss of plant and animal species
 Air pollution-the use of tractors that release harmful gases into the atmosphere
 Water logging-increase the amount of salinity in water

Mobilisation of human resources for rural development

-this strategy includes rural youth programmes and education and training to improve
the employability of people, particularly women living in rural areas.
Problems with implementation
Lack of funds

Grassroots development
Are bottom up strategies that encourage communities to start up their own projects to
improve their social and economic well-being.
Advantages of grassroots development
 Provide job opportunities/reduce unemployment
 Higher chance of succeeding because it has a local support
 Does not involve large amount of money
 Local people tend to be involved
 It targets the poor and disadvantage people
 Use appropriate technology that is affordable
 Create self-reliance/reduces dependency
 Improve standard of living by providing basic needs
Disadvantages of grassroots development
 No financial capacity/no money to implement the projects
 Might not be welcomed by government officials

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  The project might take time

Appropriate farming methods

-The right techniques for farming
-the focus is on modern farming practices which include educating farmers about the
use of hybrid seeds and pesticides, improved irrigation, the use of fertilisers and modern
technology
-developing countries make use of labour intensive while developed make use of capital
intensive.
Problem with implementation
-lack of funds/money
-lack of skills
Describe and demonstrate the importance of the needs to conserve the
environment in rural areas: land clearance, fuel and wood supplies and
deforestation, soil erosion and land degradation, ground and water pollution
caused by agriculture, maintaining wildlife diversity and sustainable
development.

Environmental issues caused by human activities

 Land clearance
 Fuel and wood supplies
 Deforestation
 Soil erosion
 Land degradation
 Ground and water pollution
 Maintaining wildlife diversity/ Loss of animals and plant species
 Waste and rubbish disposal
 Global changes to the atmosphere
 Sustainable development

Land clearing
Land clearing is the process of removing trees, stumps, bushes and rocks from an area
to increase the size of crop producing land on an existing farm or provide land for a new
farm.

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-this should be done in a responsible, planned manner because the clearing of land
exposes soil to erosion.

Reasons why forests are cleared apart from farming

 To make way for building/urbanisation/housing
 To make way for industry
 To make way for transport/roads
 For fuel
 For use in construction/industry

Fuel and wood supplies

-Fossil Fuels- Coal, oil, and natural gas. These are non-renewable resources extracted
from the Earth.
-Biofuels- Produced from organic materials (biomass), including ethanol and biodiesel.
-Balancing the demand for fuel and wood supplies with environmental sustainability is
crucial.
Uses of fuels
 Transportation-Gasoline and diesel are primarily used for powering vehicles.
 Heating- Natural gas, heating oil, and propane are common in residential and
commercial heating systems.
 Electricity Generation- Coal, natural gas, and nuclear power are traditional
sources

Environmental Impact of fossil fuels

 Significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and climate
change
Wood
-Firewood- Used as a fuel source for heating and cooking in many parts of the world.

Uses of wood
-Construction- Building materials, structural components, and finishes.
-Manufacturing-Furniture, paper products, and various wood-based items.

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-Energy- Firewood and wood pellets used for heating and cooking, especially in rural
and developing areas.
-Shifting towards renewable energy sources, enhancing energy efficiency, and
implementing sustainable forestry practices are key strategies for reducing
environmental impact
Why do people in developing countries use wood?
 Wood is cheap
 Wood is readily available
 No other alternatives
Deforestation
The process of cutting down trees without replacing them.
Why do people cut down trees?
 For building materials
 For fuel
 For wood
 To make land for farming
 Cattle ranches
How can we reduce deforestation?
 Replant trees/reforestation
 Give cutting permits
 Educate people on the importance of trees
 Use alternative sources of energy e.g. solar power
 Use alternative building materials e.g. bricks

Effects of land clearing and deforestation

-leads to soil erosion and loss of soil fertility
-affects animals as their habitats are destroyed
-can result into higher temperature and shortage of rainfall

Explain why deforestation is a global problem

 Contribute to global warming/increase in greenhouse gases/flooding
 Result in loss of biodiversity
 Contribute to increase of desertification
 Lead to erosion/soil degradation/loss of soil fertility

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  Disrupt ecosystem
 Loss of habitats

Soil erosion
Is the removal of top soil by wind or water
State ways to reduce soil erosion
 Plant more trees/afforestation/reforestation
 Mulching and adding rotten vegetation in the soil/manure
 Terracing the land
 Contour ploughing
 Building stones walls/wind breakers/tyres
 Rotational grazing
 Crop rotation
 Minimal tillage
 Carrying capacity
 Intercropping/avoid monoculture

Land degradation
Is the damage of the environment by human activities leaving it in a poor condition

Causes of land degradation

 Floods
 Over cultivation/monoculture
 Drought
 Overgrazing
 Soil erosion

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  Deforestation
Give reasons why soil becomes dry and dusty
 Soil moisture evaporates as the soil is exposed to the sun
 No shade from trees to protect or to cover the soil
 Animals walk on the soil and trample it
 rapid run run-off/no water sinks/drains into the soil
Effects of overgrazing on vegetation
-vegetation dies or stop growing
-no enough vegetation
-trampled by animals may harm vegetation

Ground and water pollution

Agricultural activities cause ground (soil) and water pollution
Chemical pollution-occurs when substances are added to the soil or water.
-run-off from barns, feedlots and cropland carries away manure, fertilisers ammonia,
insecticides, pesticides, livestock waste, oil from farm equipment.
-eventually all these pollutants will end up into water systems such as river, dams,
oceans and seas.
Water pollution can be controlled by:
 limiting the use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers
 ensuring that the bare soil is covered to prevent surface run-off
 providing water in drinking troughs rather than allowing animals drinking directly
from the water source.

Maintaining wildlife diversity

Refers to the variety of animals and plants species in the ecosystem.
Importance of wildlife diversity
 To balance the ecosystem
 To increase ecosystem stability
 To increase tourist activity/potential

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-when animals and plants become extinct, valuable sources of food and medicines are
lost, never return and the ability of the environment to sustain human and animal life is
weakened.
- the conservation of bees is an example of the importance of maintaining wildlife
diversity.
- if farmers do not use insecticides in a responsible way they could kill the bees in the
environment, if bees die plants wont pollinate and farmers wont able to produce food
and food security will be affected.

Waste and rubbish disposal

-rubbish and waste disposal can spread diseases because diseases can be carried by
animals that are likely to be attracted to dumping sites like rats, flies that breed on them.
-water running from dumping sites can pollute water supplies
-urban areas create amount of waste which is put on dumps which grow larger and
larger.
-while most rubbish in the past was made from materials that could decay or be burned,
the products of modern industries are made from metals and plastics that do not decay
and disappear.
Bio-degradable materials-are materials that cannot be broken down by the process of
decomposition e.g. a banana
Non-biodegradable-are materials that cannot be broken down by decomposition e.g.
plastics, bottles, cans, tins.

Air pollution
-Air pollution is caused by industrial factories, the burning of coal and wood and the use
of petrol and oil in vehicles.
-Air pollution poses significant risks to human health, the environment, and the economy

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Sources of Air Pollution
Transportation-Vehicles emit Nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, Sulphur dioxide,
Sulphur monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Industrial Activities-Factories, power plants, and refineries release SO2, NO,carbon
dioxide etc. Industrial emissions are a major source of air pollution.
Agriculture-Use of fertilizers and pesticides releases ammonia. Livestock farming
produces methane and ammonia.
Residential Heating and Cooking-Burning wood, coal, or other fuels in homes
produces CO2, CO. In many developing countries, indoor air pollution from cooking
stoves is a severe health issue.
Natural Sources-wildfires, volcanic eruptions, and dust storms can release large
amounts of particulate matter and gases into the atmosphere.
Effects of Air Pollution
 Human Health:
Respiratory diseases: Asthma, bronchitis, and other chronic respiratory conditions.
Cardiovascular diseases: Increased risk of heart attacks and strokes.
Cancer: Long-term exposure to certain pollutants can increase cancer risk.
 Environmental Impact:
Acid Rain: SO2 and NO can form acids in the atmosphere, damaging forests, soils,
and water bodies.
Eutrophication: Nitrogen compounds can lead to nutrient overloading in water bodies,
causing algal blooms and dead zones.

25
Climate Change: Certain pollutants like methane and black carbon contribute to global
warming.
 Economic Impact:
Health costs: Increased medical expenses and lost productivity due to illness.
Environmental damage: Costs associated with repairing damage to ecosystems and
infrastructure.
Reduced agricultural yields: Pollution can affect crop growth and food quality.

Name fossil fuels

 Coal
 Natural gas
 Oil/crude oil
 Methane/biogas
 Peat
 Lignite

Different ways not burning fossil fuels in which industries create global warming
 Heating
 Energy production
 Emission from factories
 Use of transport
 Use of machineries
 Use of products containing CFCs
Why countries find it difficult to reduce the use of fossil fuels?
 Fossil fuel are cheap
 Demands of industries
 Demands of agriculture
 Production increases
 Need to promote economic growth
 Demand of transport
 Use of complex technology
Sustainable development
Conservation farming is an important aspect of sustainable development in rural areas.

26
Conservation farming aims to:
 Increase crop production while conserving the environment
 Conserve biodiversity
 Conserve soil and maintain soil fertility
 Protect water resources and prevent water pollution
 Prevent desertification
 Decrease carbon dioxide emission
 Ensure food security
 Protect indigenous plants and animals

Global changes to the atmosphere

Global warming-is the increase of world temperature due to human activities.
-the earth is surrounded by a blanket of greenhouse gases.
-these keep the earth’s temperature at a constant 33 degrees Celsius.
-however the temperature of the earth continues to increase due to the increase of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), Sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide.
Effects of global warming
 Earth climate changes
 Increased water of water vapour in the atmosphere
 Floods and droughts become more severe
 Glacier and polar ice caps appear to be melting
 Increase of salinity in fresh water
 Wave patterns change which provide beach erosion
 Warmer oceans promote toxic algae which can lead to cholera
 Heat causes heatstroke and other diseases

Greenhouse effects
-warming of the earth surface and lower atmosphere of the earth

27
Solutions to global warming and greenhouse effects
 Hydro power
 Wind power
 Solar power
 Nuclear power
Describe the roles played by the state, formal and informal groups and
individuals in rural development: the influence of culture, beliefs and values of
individuals and group in rural development issues in Namibia.

Role players in rural development

The role played by the state in rural development
 Responsible for the creation and implementation of development policies and
framework
 Provision of infrastructure such as roads, railways, telecommunication, electricity
and clean water
 Provision of education, health care, sanitation, and housing in some
circumstances

28
  Funds many ministries that provide services in rural areas like for Ministry of
Agriculture, water and forestry and Ministry of regional and local government,
housing and rural development
Role played by informal and formal groups and individuals in rural
development in Namibia
 Formal group such as government and other country, the United Nations,
religious organisations and formal businesses and companies deal with the
issues of environmental degradation and formulate policies to act as
guidelines and intervene when those policies are ignored
 Non-governmental organisations and community based organization play a
role in rural development in Namibia example provision of health care and
support agricultural sector in rural areas to reduce hunger and poverty.
 Companies such as Namdeb contribute to rural development by improving
infrastructure, providing jobs and upskilling the local people and managing the
environment.
 Informal groups and individuals also play a role in development.
The influence of culture, beliefs and values of individuals and groups in rural
development issues
- There are different ethnic groups in Namibia.
- Various ethnic groups practice different activities and it is well evident in
agricultural activities, food customs and ceremonial occasions.
- There is a strong division of labour by gender in many rural areas
- Men and boys look after animals, build and maintain homesteads and plough
fields
- Women and girls do most of the agricultural labour, food production, child care
and household work.

 Describe and evaluate strategies for diversifying resources and community

participation in tourism: cultural tourism and conservation.

Strategies for diversifying resources and community participation in tourism

-Vision 2030 has identified tourism as one of the pillars of Namibia’s economic growth.
-it contributes directly to poverty alleviation and economic development in rural areas.
-in 2013 it contributed over N$ 3 billion towards GDP of the country.
Cultural tourism-travelling to engage with a country/region culture specifically the
lifestyle of the people in that geographical area, listening to the people, their art, religion
and elements that help shape their way of life.

29
-Cultural tourism has economic and development advantages for the communities.
-cultural tourism can occurs in urban or rural areas.
-in urban areas, cultural tourism destination includes museums and theatres
-in rural areas, cultural tourism includes showcasing the traditions of indigenous
communities, such as their festivals, rituals and traditions.
Conservation
Conservation of the human made and natural environment in rural areas is important.
Community Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM)
-managing resources in your community.
-resources needs to be managed so that they can live longer.
Advantages of CBNRM
 Create employment through conservation
 Create employment through increasing tourism
 Create markets for local crafts
 Give people access to food from community harvesting
 There will be more people in a household earning cash
Explain the positive and negative impacts of tourism on people, economy and
environment in Southern Africa.

Impacts of tourism
-tourism can have a positive impact on people, economy and the environment.
-however, tourism may also have some negative effects which must be considered.

30
- the table below shows the positive and negative impacts of tourism on people,
economy and environment.
Positive Negative impacts
impacts(benefits/advantage (disadvantages)
s
 Create employment  Tourism relatively create
opportunities low level jobs
 It can also generate  Tourism can undermine the
People income for local people culture and values of the
 Loss of ancestral land local communities
 Cultural exchange  Tourism jobs sometimes
are seasonal and insecure
with no extra benefits such
as pensions, sick pay or
health care
 Tourism sometimes show
lack of respect for local
traditions and culture
 Tourism stimulates  Government money
foreign exchange sometimes directed to
earnings tourism industry when it
 Earn government could be used for
revenues something else
economy  Helps to diversify
economy  Over-reliance on the
 Create growth in the tourism industry
service sector
 Encourage trade on a  In LEDCs most of the
smaller scale tourism facilities are owned
by foreign companies, they
make majority of the
profits, leaving locals with
little benefits
 Conservation of natural  Tourism cause
environment environmental damage
 Conservation of the  Cause environmental
human made pollution
environment environment particularly  The development of resorts
for cultural tourism can result in damage to the
 Promotion of national ecosystem
heritage  Overdevelopment of tourist
facilities could threaten
ecosystems and resources
in the area.

31
Cross national boundary conservations
Trans Frontier Park(TFP)- these are parks that are shared between countries
Examples of TFP
 Skeleton coast- Namibia and Angola
 Ai ais- Namibia and South Africa
 Bwabwata national park- Namibia, Zambia and Botswana
Aims of trans border conservancies
 To conserve animals or ecosystems
 To allow animals to follow their natural pattern of migration
 To allow animals to expand their range
 To contribute to peace and good relation between the countries
 To combat natural forest fire issue and issues such as illegal hunting and hunting
quotas.

Check your progress

32
Fig.1 shows some of the major causes of global warming and the increase in carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the earth’s atmosphere since 1965.

(a) (i) What is meant by global warming?

[1]
(ii) By how much did the carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere increase between
1965
and the year 2000?
[1]
(iii) What is the connection between the increase in carbon dioxide in the earth’s
atmosphere and global warming?
[1]
(b) (i) Suggest two ways in which modern farming methods increase emissions of
carbon
dioxide.
[2]
(ii) Give two reasons (not farming) why forests are being cleared.
[2]
(iii) What measures can be taken by governments to prevent deforestation?
[2]
(c) Describe three ways in which industrialisation is contributing to the increase in
carbon
dioxide.
[3]

33
(d) Suggest three of the effects that global warming is likely to have in your own
country[3]

2 Figs 2A and 2B show two different types of farm.

(i) Name the types of farming seen in Figs 2A and 2B.

[2]

34
(ii) Give three ways in which the type of farming shown in Fig. 2A differs from that
shown in Fig. 2B.
[3]
(iii) Suggest three reasons why the farmer in Fig. 2B is likely to have difficulty in
marketing
crops.
[3]
(iv) Co-operatives help farmers market their goods. In what other ways would co-
operatives help farmers like the one in Fig. 2B to improve their income?
[3]

(b) Fig. 3 shows details of the Green Revolution method of farming.

(i) What is meant by the Green Revolution?

[1]
(ii) Name one type of modern machinery used by farmers growing the new seeds.
[1]
(iii) Give three reasons why farmers using Green Revolution methods may need credit.
[3]
(iv) Why might unemployment increase in an area where farmers adopt the Green
Revolution?
[1]

35
(v) Describe environmental problems that may result from using Green Revolution
methods.
[3]
(c) Fig. 4 describes the life of a poor farmer in South America.

(i) Give one reason why poor farmers may get a poor harvest.
[1]
(ii) Suggest one way in which Manuel's eldest son might help the family.
[1]
(iii) How will having only one meal a day affect Manuel and his family's ability to work
hard?
[2]
(iv) Explain why Manuel and his family are trapped in a vicious circle of poverty.
[4]

(d) Study Fig. 5 which is a newspaper extract on sheep farming in Namibia.

(i) Identify two products from the farming activities described in Fig. 5.
[1]
(ii) Suggest four ways by which farmers can improve livestock farming to
36
produce high quality products.
[4]
(iii) The Namibian government is trying to improve all types of farming. Describe what
the Namibian government has done to improve farming.
[3]
(e) Fig. 6 shows some of the causes of soil erosion in developing countries.

(i) Explain in your own words what is meant by soil erosion.

[1]
(ii) Describe the effect of overgrazing on vegetation.
[1]
(iii) Give two reasons why the soil becomes dry and dusty when it is overgrazed.
[2]
(iv) Suggest three ways to reduce soil erosion.
[3]

(f) Fig. 7 shows how the greenhouse effect works.

37
(i) Name two fossil fuels.
[2]
(ii) Name a gas that causes the greenhouse effect.
[1]
(iii) Describe two different ways (not burning fossil fuels) in which industries
create global warming.
[2]
(iv) Give two reasons why countries find it very difficult to reduce the use of
fossil fuels.
[2]
3 Study Fig. 8, which shows one way of improving farming

38
(a) (i) What is meant by a farmer’s cooperative?
[1]
(ii) In what ways can a cooperative help to increase the income of farmers?
[3]
(iii) What role will agents such as Namboard, play in the cooperative?
[2]
(b) Most of the large commercial farmers in Namibia belong to cooperatives like
Agra. Give two other characteristics of commercial farming.
[2]
(c) Explain why governments want to create development in rural areas.
[3]
(d) Land reform in many African countries has involved taking away land from
commercial farmers and giving it to subsistence farmers. Explain how this
might have a negative effect on the country’s economy.
[4]
(e) Study Fig. 9, which is an extract about food security and answer the questions that
Follow

(i) According to Fig. 9, what caused the increase in global food prices?
[1]
(ii) How has the Green Revolution helped to reduce famine?
[1]
(iii) Farmers often end up in debt when participating in rural development
projects. Explain what they need money for.
[3]
(iv) How do governments of countries implementing rural development
schemes, assist farmers to do this?
[4]

39
(v) How can modern farming methods contribute to soil erosion and soil degradation?
[4]

4 (a) Study photographs A, B and C, which are about traditional rural societies.

(i) Identify the types of traditional rural societies shown by Photograph A,

Photograph B and Photograph C.
[3]
(ii) Using evidence from Photographs A, B and C only, describe how labour is

40
used as a factor of production by traditional societies.
[3]
(b) Study Fig. 10, which is about organic farming.

(i) Explain the difference between crop rotation and monoculture.

[2]
(ii) Describe two disadvantages of monoculture.
[2]
(iii) Why do organic farmers benefit from nearby markets? [1]
(c) Study Fig. 11, which is about the percentage of total deforestation occurring in
countries in the 1990’s and 2000’s.

(i) What is meant by deforestation? [1]

(ii) According to Fig. 11, in which country did the highest percentage of
deforestation occur in both the 1990’s and 2000’s? [1]
(iii) By what percentage did the deforestation of Brazil increase from the 1990s

41
to the 2000s? [1]
(iv) Explain why deforestation is a problem both locally and globally.
[4]
(v) Describe two ways by which the government of a country can help to reduce
deforestation.
[2]

(d) Study Fig. 12, which is about communal conservancies.

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) helps Namibia

manage and protect its environment while empowering communities that live
off the land.
(i) To which theory of development can communal conservancies be linked? [1]
(ii) With reference to Fig. 12, explain in your own words the aim of the CBNRM.
[1]

42
(iii) Suggest three ways in which the local communities can benefit from
communal conservancies.
[3]
4 (a) Study Fig. 13 which is about rural development schemes.

(i) Suggest two reasons why governments want to develop rural areas.
[2]
(ii) What is meant by land reform?
[1]
(iii) Describe two self-employment projects and explain how each can earn
rural people an income.
[4]
(iv) State two other ways in which the government can improve the lives of
people in rural areas.
[2]

(b) Study Fig. 14 which shows different types of farming.

(i) Describe three ways in which subsistence farming differs from commercial
farming.
[3]
(ii) Give three reasons why many farmers in developing countries are likely to

43
experience problems in marketing crops.
[3]
(iii) Give two reasons why many subsistence farmers are short of land.
[2]
(iv) Suggest two ways by which commercial farmers can improve their livestock
farming.
[2]
(v) Describe and explain two environmental problems caused by commercial
farming.
[4]
5 Study Fig. 15, a photograph of a traditional society

(a) (i) Identify the type of traditional society shown in Fig 15. [1]
(ii) State two other types of traditional societies.
[2]

(iii) Suggest the type of tools used in each of the traditional societies mentioned in (a)
(ii).
[2]
(iv) Describe a type of work women do in traditional societies.
[1]
(b) Study Fig. 16, an extract about aquaculture in Zambezi.

44
(i) With reference to Fig.16, identify three reasons why the government want to
develop rural areas.
[3]
(ii) State three ways in which the farm could be financed.
[3]
(iii) Suggest three other small projects which can help people to earn a living in
rural areas.
[3]
(iv) Suggest reasons why some rural development schemes do not succeed. [3]

(c) Study Fig. 17, which is a diagram of land degradation.

45
(i) What is meant by land degradation?
[1]
(ii) State two causes of land degradation.
[2]
(iii) Give three reasons why the soil becomes dry and dusty.
[3]
(d) (i) Define soil erosion.
[1]
(ii) State four ways to reduce soil erosion.
[4]
(iii) Explain two other environmental problems.
[4]

46