1 Core: Exponents and logarithm

ESSENTIAL UNDERSTANDINGS
n Number and algebra allow us to represent patterns, show equivalences and make generalizations
which enable us to model real-world situations.
n Algebra is an abstraction of numerical concepts and employs variables to solve mathematical
problems.

In this chapter you will learn…

n how to use the laws of exponents with integer exponents
n how to perform operations with numbers in the form a 10 k, where 1 a < 10 and k is an integer
n about the number e
n about logarithms
n how to solve simple exponential equations.

CONCEPTS
The following key concepts will be addressed in this chapter:
n Different representations of numbers enable quantities to be compared and used
for computational purposes with ease and accuracy.
n Numbers and formulae can appear in different, but equivalent forms, or
representations, which can help us establish identities.

Tip PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

The notation k ∈ Before starting this chapter, you should already be able to complete the following:
means that k is an 1 Evaluate the following:
integer.
a 34 b 5 23
2 Write the following values in the form a × 10k where 1 a < 10 and ∈ k .
a 342.71 b 0.00856
3 Express 64 in the form 2k , where ∈ k .

n Figure 1.1 How do we compare very large numbers?

Core: Exponents and logarithms 3

When you first study maths, it is easy to think it is a subject that is all about numbers.
But actually, the study of numbers is just one area in which we apply the logic of maths.
Once you have experience of numbers, you will be looking to make links: for example,
324+5=,2 2 but is this true in general for consecutive numbers? Of course the answer is

‘no’, but 3 4× =122

2 2 gives you a rule that works when applied to multiplications.

In this chapter we will be generalizing some patterns you are probably already aware
of. You will then be applying these rules to numbers represented in different ways. You
might wonder why we need a different form for writing numbers, but try writing down
the number of atoms in the sun. When numbers are very large or very small, it is useful
to have a more convenient form to express them in.
Finally, you will see how to solve equations where the unknown is in the exponent,
such as 10x7= . In so doing you will meet a number that has wide-ranging applications
in fields including science, economics and engineering.

Starter Activity
Look at the pictures in Figure 1.1. In small groups discuss whether there are more atoms in
a jug of water than there are jugs of water in the Atlantic Ocean.
Now look at this problem:
A model suggests that the level of carbon dioxide (CO 2) in the atmosphere in parts per
million is given by 400 1.05 , nwhere n is the number of years after 2018.
Use a spreadsheet to estimate when this model predicts the level of CO 2 in the atmosphere
will reach 1000 parts per million.

LEARNER PROFILE – Inquirers

Is mathematics invented or discovered? Is mathematics designed to mirror reality?
4 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

1A Laws of exponents
TOK Links
In expressions like an, ais called the base and n is called the exponent, although you may
see it referred to as power, index or indice. Does having a label help you understand it?
Would it be better if everybody used the same label?

In your previous work you have may have noticed that 23 × 22 = (2 × 2 × 2) × (2 × 2) = 25 .

Based on specific examples such as this you can generalize to a formula.
Tip
Be aware that you will KEY POINT 1.1
often have to use these
rules ‘backwards’. For l am a n = +a m n
am
example, if you see 212 l = −a m n
an
you can rewrite it as
(23 )4 or as (24 )3 . l ( a) m n = a mn

To formally prove these rules requires a method called mathematical induction,

which you will encounter if you are studying the Mathematics: Analysis and
approaches HL course.

If we set m and n equal in the second law in Key Point 1.1 then it follows that a0 = 1 for
any (non-zero) value of a.

∞
42
TOOLKIT: Problem Solving
Anything raised to the power 0 is 1, but 0 to any power is 0. So, what is the value
3
924
π of 00?

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1

Simplify x 6x . 3

Use a ma n× a=m n+ x6x3× =

6x3 +

=x 9

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2

8
Simplify y .
y2

y8
Use a m = a m−n = y8−2
an y2
= y6
1A Laws of exponents 5

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.3

( )5 . You do not need to evaluate your result.

Simplify 73

(73)75 =
n
am a mn
Use ( ) =
35

= 715

If the expression has numbers as well as algebraic values, just multiply or divide the
numbers separately. This follows because we can do multiplication in any convenient order.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4

Simplify b2 3 7 b. 4

You can reorder the 2 b73b14

4b
× =3 4b
multiplication as × 2× × 7 3 4 b b
Then b3b4× =
b3 4+ = 14 b7

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.5

6 9
Simplify c 4 .
2c
You can use your knowledge of fractions to
6c 9 6 c9
write the expression as a numeric fraction =×
multiplied by an algebraic fraction 2 c4 2 c4

9
Use c = −c9 4 = 3c5
c4

The laws in Key Point 1.1 work for negative as well as positive integers. But what is the
meaning of a negative exponent? In the second law in Key Point 1.1 we can set m = 0
and use the fact that a0 = 1 to deduce a very important rule.

KEY POINT 1.2

−n 1
la =
an

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.6

Without a calculator write 2-4 as a fraction in its simplest terms.

Use a − n = 1n 2 −4 = 1
a 24

=1
16
6 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.7

Write −4 x3 as a fraction.

Apply the power -3 to 4 x−3 = × 4 1

x (but not to 4) x3
4
= x3

You will often need to apply an exponent to a product or fraction. We can use the fact
that multiplication can be reordered to help suggest a rule. For example,
3
(ab) ( =)(ab)(ab) ab
( a a =a ×b× × b× × b= a b ) ( ) 33

This suggests the following generalization.

KEY POINT 1.3

l ( ab
)n = an bn
n
a an

l ()
b
=
bn

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.8

Simplify (
2 x2y4 − )5 .
Apply the power 5 to each term
in the product (2 x2y4 −5 ) (= )25(2x5)y −4 5

= 32 x10y20 −

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.9

2u −3
Simplify ⎛ 3v2 ⎞ .
⎝ ⎠
−3
Apply the power -3 to each part ⎛ 2u ⎞ = 2− 3−u3
of the fraction ⎝3v2 ⎠ 3−3 (2v3) −
1 1
8 u3
=
1 1
27 v6
Tip
() 8
1
3

()
Perhaps an easier way =u
1
to do Worked Example 27 v6
1.9 is to use the last Four level fractions are easiest 1 1
rule from Key Point 1.1 dealt with by dividing two =÷3
8u v 27 6
to write the expression normal fractions. Flip the
1 27 v6
⎛ 2u 3⎞1− second fraction and multiply =× 3
8u 1
()
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎟, but it
3v2 ⎠
as ⎝ 27 6
is good to practise =v 3
working with four 8u
level fractions too!
1A Laws of exponents 7

Be the Examiner 1.1

2 x2y3 4) .
Simplify (
Which is the correct solution? Identify the errors made in the incorrect solutions.

Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

(2 x2y3 4) = 2 4 (2x4)3 4( y) (2 x2y3 4) = 2 4 2(x4)3y4( ) (2 x) 2y(3 4) (= )24 2x4 3y4

= 16 x6 y7 = 8 x8 y12 = 16 x8 y12

More complicated expressions may have to be simplified before the laws of exponents
are applied.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.10

Simplify 16 a b − 12 ab .
52 4

4 ab 2

You can split a fraction up if the 16 a 5b2 − 12 ab 4 16 a 5b2 12 ab 4

top is a sum or a difference = −
4 ab 2 4 ab 2 4 ab 2
Simplify numbers, as and bs separately = 4−a34b2

You can only apply the laws of exponents when the bases are the same. Sometimes you
In Chapters 9
and 10 you
can rewrite one of the bases to achieve this.
will need
to use the laws WORKED EXAMPLE 1.11
of exponents to
simplify expressions Express 349 5 in the form 3k , for some integer k.
before they can be
differentiated or
Write 9 as 32 3495× =
43235
× ()
integrated. = 3× 4310
= 314
∴ k = 14

This technique can be used to solve some equations.

An equation WORKED EXAMPLE 1.12

like this
Solve 2 x+6 = 8.x
with the
unknown (x) in Write 8 as 23 2 x8+x6 =
the power is called
2 x+ 6 3= (2 )
x
an exponential
equation. In 2 x2+6 3= x
Section 1C, you will
Since the bases are the same,
see how to solve ∴ x+ =6 3 x
the exponents must be equal
more complicated 2 x6 =
examples using x 3=
logarithms.
8 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

The laws of exponents and your prior knowledge of algebra can be applied to modelling
real-life situations.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.13

The length of a baby fish is modelled by = L t 2 2 where t is the age in days and L is the length
in cm. Its mass in grams is modelled by M L= 4 3 .

a Find and simplify an expression for M in terms of t.

b Find the age of the fish when the model predicts a mass of 1000 g.
c Explain why the model is unlikely to still hold after 100 days.

Substitute =L 2t2 into a M L= 4 3

the expression for M
= 4(2 t)2 3
Apply the exponent
3 to 2 and to t 2 ( ))
= 4 2 3 2(t
3

= 4 (8 t)6
= 3t 2 6
You need to find the value
b When =M 1000,
of t when M 1000
=
1000 32
= t6

t 6 = 1000
32

Take the sixth root of

both sides to find t
t = 6 1000 = 1.77 days
32
c The model predicts that the fish will continue growing,
whereas in reality it is likely that after 100 days the fish
will be growing far more slowly, if at all.

Exercise 1A
For questions 1 to 4, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.1 to simplify the expressions. If numerical, you
do not need to evaluate your result.
1 a x2 × x4 2 a y3 × y3 3 a a6 × a 4 a 57 × 510
b x5 × x7 b z5 × z5 b a10 × a b 212 × 212
For questions 5 to 8, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.2 to simplify the expressions. If numerical, you
do not need to evaluate your result.
4 b7
5ax 3 6 a y8 ÷ y4 7a
b 8 a 1112 ÷ 114
x
x8 b9
b b z9 × z3 b
b b 710 ÷ 75
x5
For questions 9 to 12, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.3 to simplify the expressions. If numerical,
you do not need to evaluate your result.
x3 5 y4 4 c7 2
9a () 10 a () 11 a () 12 a ( ) 35 10
x4 8 z5 5 c2 7 137 4
b( ) b( ) b( ) b( )
1A Laws of exponents 9

For questions 13 to 15, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.4 to simplify the expressions.
13 a 12x2 × 4x5 14 a a × 3a2 15 a 5x2 yz × 4x3 y2
b 3x4 × 5x3 b b2 × 5b2 b 6x7 yz2 × 2xz3
For questions 16 to 19, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.5 to simplify the expressions.
16 a
10 x10 17 a 8x
5 x5 18 a 15x2 ÷ 9x4 19 a 14x3 y5 ÷ 2xy2
16 x4
9 x9 b 5x
2
b b 21x5 ÷ 28x3 b 6x5 yz2 ÷ 3x2 y2 z
3 x3 x
20 3
For questions 20 to 23, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.6 to write the expression as a fraction in its
simplest terms. 1 2
3⎞− 2⎞−
20 a 10 -1 21 a 3-3 22 a ⎛ 4 23 a ⎛
⎝ ⎠ ⎝3⎠
1 3
5⎞− 2⎞−
b 7-1 b 5-2 b⎛ b⎛
⎝7 ⎠ ⎝5⎠
For questions 24 to 26, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.7 to write the expression as a fraction in its
simplest terms.
24 a 7 × 3-2 25 a 6x-1 26 a 3-2 ÷ 2-3
b 5 × 2-4 b 10x-4 b 4 -3 ÷ 3-4
For questions 27 to 29, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.8 to simplify each expression.
3u2−3 2 a5−2 − 5 x2 3y2 )
27 a () 28 a () 29 a (
2 v3−5
b( )
3b7−3−
b( ) b (
3a2 b2 4− )
For questions 30 to 32, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.9 to simplify each expression.
3 3 2
x⎞ 3x2 ⎞ 3u ⎞−
30 a ⎛ ⎝3⎠ 31 a ⎛ 32 a ⎛ ⎝4 v2 ⎠
⎝⎜ y3⎠⎟
2
2 2 3
5⎞ 5uv3⎞ 2 a 3⎞ −
b ⎛ x2 b ⎛⎝ 4 ⎠ b ⎛ 3b2
⎝ ⎠ 7b ⎝ ⎠
For questions 33 to 35, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.10 to simplify each expression.
6 x2 − 21x7 15u3v + 18u 23v 35 a 10 p 3q pq −6 3
33 a 34 a
3x 3uv 2 p 2q
15 y4 + 25 y6
b 20 a b c − 16 a b c
572 423
b b 14 s 4t 3 + 21s5t7
5y 3 4a b c
3 2
7 s 2t 5
For questions 36 to 39, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.11 to express each value in the form ab for
the given prime number base a.
36 a Express 94 as a power of 3. b Express 278 as a power of 3.
37 a Express 25 × 42 as a power of 2. b Express 54 × 1252 as a power of 5.
38 a Express 47 ÷ 83 as a power of 2. b Express 275 ÷ 92 as a power of 3.
39 a Express 83 × 27 + 48 as a power of 2. b Express 162 - 48 ÷ 83 as a power of 2.
For questions 40 to 43, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.12 to solve each equation to find the
unknown value.
40 a Solve 3x = 81. 41 a Solve 2x + 4 = 8. 42 a Solve 73x - 5 = 49. 43 a Solve 32 x5+ = 1 .
27
1
b Solve 5x = 125. b Solve 3x - 3 = 27. b Solve 42x - 7 = 16. b Solve 23x5+ = .
16
10 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

2 x2y3 .
44 Simplify
4 x2 + 8 x3 .
2x 45 Simplify ( ) 8 xy 46 Write (
2 ab )
2 3−without
− brackets or negative indices.

47 The number of people suffering from a disease ‘D’ in a country is modelled by D = 1 000 000n-2 where n is the
amount spent on prevention (in millions of dollars).
a Rearrange the equation to find n in terms of D.
b According to the model, how many people will have the disease if $2 million dollars is spent on prevention?
c How much must be spent to reduce the number of people with the disease to 10 000?
48 A computer scientist analyses two different methods for finding the prime factorization of a number. They both
take a time T microseconds that depends on the number of digits (n).
Method A: TA = kAn 3
Method B: TB = kBn 2
Both methods take 1000 microseconds to factorize a five digit number.
a Find the values of k A and k B.
TA
b Find and simplify an expression for .
TB
c Which method would be quicker at factorizing a 10 digit number? Justify your answer.
49 Solve +10
× 22 = 18 . 51 Solve 5x25 5× 2 x.
x +1 =
50 Solve = 9+x 3x 5.
52 Solve =8× 2 4 2 x. 53 Solve 252 x4+ = 125 5
x x − 1.

54 The pressure (P) in a gas is equal to 0.8Twhere T is the temperature measured in kelvin. The air resistance, R, in
newtons, of an aeroplane is modelled by = R 5 P2.
a Find an expression for R in terms of T.
b If the air resistance has a magnitude of 200 000 newtons, find the temperature in kelvin.
55 A boat travels 3 km at a speed of v km per hour.
a Find an expression for the time taken.
The boat uses up v0.5 2 litres of petrol per hour.
b Find an expression for the amount of petrol used in the 3 km journey.
The boat has 60 litres of fuel.
c Find the maximum speed the boat can travel at if it is to complete the 3 km journey.
56 Solve the simultaneous equations:

4 x 32
8 x2y = 1 and =
2y
57 Solve =6× 81 2 . x
x x− 1
58 Solve +32 2 = 2 x.
x +5
x−
2 = 1.
59 Find all solutions to ( )
60 Determine, with justification, which is larger out of 27000 and 53000 .
61 What is the last digit of 316316 + 631631
?
1B Operations with numbers in the form a × 10k , where 1 a < 10 and k is an integer 11

1B Operations with numbers in the form

Tip
a × 10k , where 1 a < 10 and k is an integer
The notation k ∈
You already know that it can be useful to write very large or very small numbers in the
means that k is an
integer. form a 10k where 1 a < 10 and k ∈ . This is often referred to as standard index form,
standard form or scientific notation.

You are the Researcher

Extremely large numbers require other ways of representing them. You might want
to research tetration and the types of number – such as Graham’s Number – which
require this notation for them to be written down.

You now need to be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers in this form.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.14

Without a calculator, write (3 × 107 ) × (4 × 10−3 ) in the form a × 10k where 1 10a < and
k∈ .
Reorder so that the respective parts
of each number are together. (3 ×10× × 4710
) (3 4 10 10−3) = (× × × ) ( 73 −
)
10710 −3 = 10 7+3(−) = 1× 2 104

12 10 4 = (1.2 × 10 )
× 10 4
= 1× .2 105

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.15

x 7.5 108 .
Show that if =x × 3 107 and = × −y 4 10 2, then = × y

x 3 10 7
y = × 4 10
Split off the powers of 10
×− 2

3 10 7
=× −
4 10 2
7 −2(−)
= 0.75
× 10
= 0× .75 109
Change the number
into standard form
= (× 7.5
× 10 10−1)9

= 7.5
× − + 10 1 9
= 7× .5 108
12 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

TOK Links
In Worked Example 1.15, we made explicit the rules of indices used, but just assumed that
3
= 0.75 was obvious. When you were 11 years old you might have had to explain this bit too,
4
but part of mathematics is knowing the mathematical level and culture of your audience.
If you continue with mathematics, then in a few years’ time you would not be expected to
explain the rules of indices anymore as everybody reading your explanations will probably
know them. Is this unique to mathematics or do explanations in every area of knowledge
depend on the audience?

With a ‘show that’ question, like that in Worked Example 1.15, you need to be able to
explain each step in the calculation; most of the time, however, you will be able to do
this type of arithmetic on a calculator, as shown below.

Note that in this mode, the output 1.59E+05 shown on the right means 1.59 × 105.
You can choose the number of significant figures to which the number is rounded (here
3 was chosen, as shown on the left).

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.16

Show that 3.2 10 19 20 20 .
+ 4.5 10 = 4.82 10

Write 3.2 1019 as 0.32 1020 so 3.2 10

× + 4.5
× =19× 10
+ × 0.32 10204.5 10 20 20
that there is clearly a factor of 1020
= (+0.32 )
× 4.5 1020
Change the number = × 4.82 1020
into standard form

In the ‘show that’ questions you need to be able to explain all the steps without
referring to a calculator. Most of the time, however, you will be able to do this type of
arithmetic on a calculator.

CONCEPTS – REPRESENTATION
520 and 9.5367… × 1013are both representations of the same number. However, they
have different uses. The second probably gives you a better sense of the scale of the
number, but the former might be more useful in solving 52x = 520 or comparing it to 318 .
One major skill in mathematics is deciding which representation to use in which
problem.
1B Operations with numbers in the form a × 10k , where 1 a < 10 and k is an integer 13

Exercise 1B
Questions 1 to 4 are designed to remind you of your prior learning.
1 a Write 3.2 × 104 as a normal number.
b Write 6.92 × 106 as a normal number.
2 a Write 4.8 × 10 -2 as a decimal.
b Write 9.85 × 10 -4 as a decimal.
3 a Write the value 612.07 in standard index form.
b Write the value 3076.91 in standard index form.
4 a Write the value 0.003 061 7 in standard index form.
b Write the value 0.022 19 in standard index form.
For questions 5 to 7, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.14 to write the given expressions in standard
index form. Do not use a calculator.
5 1010 2)
5 a (2 × 104 ) × (3.4 × 103 ) 6 a (5 × 104 ) × (2 × 10 -5)
7a (
6 106 2 )
b(
b (3.2 × 105 ) × (3 × 106 ) b (3 × 10 -2) × (4 × 10 -4)
For questions 8 to 10, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.15 to write the given expressions in standard
index form. Do not use a calculator.
6 10 2 1 10 5 × ÷ 4× 1410) ( )
8.4 10 3
10 a (
8a 9a
3 10 4 2 10 4
8 10 6 b 2 10 )() 6
5
9.3 × 10
÷ 3× 1510
b(
b
2 10 10 8 10 2

For questions 11 to 13, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.16 to write the given expressions in standard
index form. Do not use a calculator.
11 a 1 × 104 + 2 × 105 12 a 8 × 105 - 4 × 104 13 a (2.1 × 103 ) + (3.8 × 104 )
b 3 × 108 + 2 × 106 b 9 × 1014 − 9 × 1012 b (5.7 × 1013 ) + (4.3 × 1012 )
14 Show that if a = 4 × 106 , b = 5 × 10 -3, then a × b = 2 × 104 .
15 Show that if c = 1.4 × 103 , d = 5 × 108 , then c × d = 7 × 1011 .
a
16 Show that if = a× 4 10 , 6 b = 5× 10 , −then = 8× 10 . 8
3
b
c
17 Show that if = c 1.4 10 , d = 2 × 10 , 8then = 7× −10 . 6
3
d
18 Show that if a = 4.7 × 106 , b = 7.1 × 105 , then a - b = 3.99 × 106 .
19 Show that if c = 3.98 × 1013 , d = 4.2 × 1014 , then d - c = 3.802 × 1014 .
20 Let p = 12.2 × 107 and q = 3.05 × 105 .
a Write p in the form a × 10k where 1 < aand10k∈ .
p
b Evaluate q .
c Write your answer to part b in the form a × 10k where 1 <a 10 and k ∈ .
21 The number of atoms in a balloon is approximately 6 × 1023 . Theoretical physics predicts that there are
approximately 1080 atoms in the known universe. What proportion of atoms in the known universe are found in
the balloon?
22 12 grams of carbon contains 6.02 × 1023 atoms. What is the mass (in grams) of one atom of carbon? Give your
answer in the form a × 10k where 1 < aand10 k∈ .
23 The diameter of a uranium nucleus is approximately 15 fm where 1 fm is 10 -15 m.
a Write the diameter (in metres) in the form a × 10k where 1 < aand10 k∈ .
1
If the nucleus is modelled as a sphere, then the volume is given by V d = π 3 where d is the diameter.
6
b Estimate the volume of a uranium nucleus in metres cubed.
14 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

24 The area of Africa is approximately 3.04 × 1013 m2 . The area of Europe is approximately 1.02 × 1013 m2 . The
population of Africa is approximately 1.2 billion and the population of Europe is 741 million.
a How many times bigger is Africa than Europe?
b Write the population of Europe in the form a × 10k where 1 < aand10 k∈ .
c Does Africa or Europe have more people per metre squared? Justify your answer.
25 You are given that
(3 10 a ) × ×( 5 10 b) = c× 10 d
where 1 < cand10 d∈ .
a Find the value of c.
b Find an expression for d in terms of a and b.
26 You are given that
(2 10 a ) ÷( ×5 10 b) = c× 10 d
where 1 < cand10 d ∈ .
a Find the value of c.
b Find an expression for d in terms of a and b.
× p and = × y b 10q where
27 x a= 10 4<<
a b< . When
9 written in standard form, xy =
c 10r
× . Express r in terms
of p and q.

1C Logarithms
n Introduction to logarithms
If you want to find the positive value of x for which x2 = 5 you can use the square root
function: =x ≈
5 2.236 .
There is also a function that will let you find the value of x such that, say, 10x = 5. That
≈
function is logarithm with base 10: =x log105 0.699 .
Although base 10 logarithms are common, any positive base other than 1 can be used.
Tip
KEY POINT 1.4
Usually log 10 x will
just be written as log x. a = bx is equivalent to log ba x= .

TOK Links
The study of logarithms is usually attributed to the Scottish mathematician John Napier. Do
you think he discovered something which already existed or invented something new?

As 10x is always positive, note that there is no answer to a question such as ‘10 raised to
what exponent gives -2?’ Therefore, you can only take logarithms of positive numbers.
1C Logarithms 15

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.17

Without a calculator, calculate the value of log 1000.

Let the value of log1000 be x x = log1000

Use a = bx is equivalent to log b a = x ∴ 10x = 1000
You can see (or experiment
log 1000 = 3
to find) that x = 3

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.18

Find the exact value of y if log 10 (y + 1) = 3.

The number
e has many
Use a = bx is equivalent to log b a = x log 2 (y + 1) = 3
applications
in real-world systems y + 1 = 103 = 1000
due to the fact that
y = 999
it has a very special
rate of change.
You will learn
much more about Another very common base for logarithms is the number e ≈ 2.718 28, which is an
it in Chapter 20 in irrational number a bit like π.
relation to calculus.
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and is written as lnx.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.19

Make x the subject of ln(3x - 2) = y.

Use a = bx is equivalent to ln(3x2)− = y

log b a = x, with b = e
3 x2−e =y
y
x = e 2+
3

Logarithms can be treated algebraically with all the usual rules applying.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.20

Simplify 3ln x − ln x .
ln x

Since y3y y− = 2 we can 3ln ln

x−x 2ln x
simplify the numerator =
ln x ln x
Divide top and bottom by xln =2
16 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

Since the process of taking a logarithm with base b reverses the process of raising b to
an exponent, you have the following important results.

KEY POINT 1.5

For base 10:
l log10x = x
l 10 log
x =x
For base e:
l lne x = x
l elnx = x

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.21

Without using a calculator, find the exact value of e3ln2 .

Use the law of

= 3(e )
e3ln2 ln2
()
exponents a mn = a m n
eln2 = 2 = 23
=8

n Numerical evaluation of logarithms using technology

You need to be able to use your graphical display calculator (GDC) to evaluate
logarithms.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.22

Using a calculator, find the value of (ln 345678), giving your answer in standard index form
to three significant figures.

From GDC:
Round the ln345678 12.75326298
=
calculator display to
3 significant figures = 12.8 (3 s.f.
)
Make sure you
convert the answer = 1× .28 101
to standard form
1C Logarithms 17

n Solving exponential equations

You can use technology to find approximate solutions to exponential equations.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.23

Solve the equation ex = 4, giving your answer to three significant figures.

Use a = bx is equivalent to log b a = x, with b = e x ln

= 4
Evaluate using
your GDC = 1.39 3( s.f.
)

Sometimes you need to find exact solutions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.24
Solve 10 x−2 = 21, giving your answer in an exact form.

Use a = bx is equivalent to log b a = x x −2 log

= 21
Rearrange x 2= log
+ 21

You might have to rearrange an equation first.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.25
Solve e3x2+ = 4e,x giving your answer correct to three significant figures.

Tip This equation is not of the form a = bx so you e3x2+ = 4e x

cannot just introduce logarithms immediately.
There are many Instead, aim to express everything as a power of e e3x2+ln4= e e x

possible approaches Use the a ma na = + m n on the RHS e3x2+ln4= e +x

to answering the
Since the bases are the same, the
question in Worked 3x2+ln=4+ x
exponents must be equal as well
Example 1.25. For
example, you could 2 xln=4−2
also have divided both = 42−
x ln
sides by ex and then 2
taken natural logs of = −0.307 (3 )s.f.
both sides.
18 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

Exercise 1C
For questions 1 to 4, without using a calculator, find the exact value of each of the given logarithms, using the method
demonstrated in Worked Example 1.17.
1 a log10 2 a log 100 000 3 a log1 4 a log 0.01
b log100 b log 1 000 000 b log 0.1 b log 0.0001
For questions 5 to 8, without using a calculator, find the exact value of each of the given logarithms, using the method
demonstrated in Worked Example 1.17. Note that these logs are to a base other than 10, but practising these will enhance
your understanding.

5 a log 2 2 6 a log 3 27 7 a log 5 1 8 a log 2 0.25

b log 2 4 b log 3 81 b log 5 0.2 b log 2 0.125
For questions 9 to 11, without using a calculator, find the exact value of x in each of the given logarithms, using the
method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.18.
9a log x = 2 10 a log (2 4x −5 =) 11 a log (2 x3 −1 =) −
b log x = 3 b log (3 x4 +3 =) b log (2x)2+ = −
For questions 12 to 14, rearrange each equation to find an expression for x, using the method demonstrated in Worked
Example 1.19.
12 a ln x = 2 13 a ln x y= + 1 14 a ln (2 x4 + =) − y 3

b ln x = 5 b ln x y= 2 b
2 ()
ln 1 x − 6= 2+1 y

For questions 15 to 17, simplify each expression using the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.20.
2 (log 3 x)
2 2
ln xln+ ( )x
15 a log x + 4log x 16 a 17 a − ln x
log 3x ln x
3
log 2x ln xln− ( )x
b 10log x − 5log x b b + ln x
(log 2x)
2 2
(ln)x
For questions 18 to 25, simplify each expression using the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.21 and Key
Point 1.5.

18 a log 10 -15 19 a ln e4.5 20 a 10log13 21 a eln3

b log 1017 b ln e -1.5 b 10log7 b eln7

22 a 103log2 23 a e2ln5 24 a 10 -log 3 25 a e -5ln 2

b 102log3 b e4ln3 b 10 -log 6 b e -3 ln 4
For questions 26 to 28, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.22 (that is, use technology) to evaluate the
following to three significant figures.
26 a log124.7 27 a ln 245.3 28 a log 0.5
b log1399.8 b ln17.9 b log 0.04
For questions 29 to 31, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.23 to solve the given equations, giving an
exact answer.
29 a 10 x = 5 30 a 10 x = 0.2 31 a ex = 3
b 10 x = 7 b 10 x = 0.06 b ex = 7
For questions 32 to 34, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.24 to solve the given equations to find x,
giving your answer in an exact form.
32 a 10 x - 2 = 7 33 a 10 x - 2 = 70 34 a ex + 2 = k - 2
b 10 x + 4 = 13 b 10 x + 4 = 1300 b ex + 2 = 2k + 1
1C Logarithms 19

For questions 35 and 36, use the method demonstrated in Worked Example 1.25 to solve the given equations, giving your
answers correct to three significant figures.
35 a 10x = 5 × 10 -x 36 a e2x = 6e2 - x
b 102x + 1 = 4 × 10x b e3x-1 = 4e1 - x

37 Find the exact solution of + 1 2log x = 9. 38 Find the exact solution of log (3 x)4 +3.=
ln e aeb . 40 Use technology to solve 10 x5= .
39 Simplify ()
42 Use technology to solve × +2=10 6 20.
x
41 Use technology to solve 3 10 x = 20.
43 Find the exact solution of 5 20 = 8× 2
x x.

44 One formula for the pH of a solution is given by pH = − log[H +] where [H+ ] is the concentration of H+ ions in
moles per litre.
a A solution contains 2.5 × 10
− 8 moles per litre of H+ ions. Find the pH of this solution.

b A solution of hydrochloric acid has a pH of 1.9. Find the concentration of H+ ions.

45 The radioactivity (R) of a substance after a time t days is modelled by = × R 10 e .
−0.1 t

a Find the initial (t = 0) radioactivity.

b Find the time taken for the radioactivity to fall to half of its original value.
46 The population of bacteria (B) at time t hours after being added to an agar dish is modelled by = × B 1000 e t 0.1

a Find the number of bacteria

i initially
ii after 2 hours.
b Find an expression for the time it takes to reach 3000. Use technology to evaluate this expression.
47 The population of penguins (P) after t years on two islands is modelled by:
First island: =P 200 e t 0.1

Second island: =P 100 e 0.25t .

How many years are required before the population of penguins on both islands is equal?
48 The decibel scale measures the loudness of sound. It has the formula ( ) Iwhere L is the noise level in
L = 10log 1012
decibels and I is the sound intensity in watts per metre squared.
a The sound intensity inside a car is 5 × 10 -7 watts per metre squared. Find the noise level in the car.
b The sound intensity in a factory is 5 × 10 -6 watts per metre squared. Find the noise level in the factory.
c What is the effect on the noise level of multiplying the sound intensity by 10?
d Any noise level above 90 decibels is considered dangerous to a human ear. What sound intensity does this
correspond to?
49 a Write 20 in the form ek .
b If 20x = 7 find an exact expression for x in terms of natural logarithms.
50 Solve the simultaneous equations
log ⎜ x⎟ = 1
⎛ ⎞
log (xy) = and
3
⎝ y⎠
51 Evaluate log10 xlog x x is a positive number.
− where
20 1 Core: Exponents and logarithms

Checklist
n You should know how to use the laws of exponents with integer exponents:
n
am a n = +a n m ab a b n n
( )a = a mn
mn
() =×
n
am am n a −n = 1 a⎞ an
=− ⎛ ⎝ b⎠ = n
an an b
n You should be able to apply these rules of exponents to numbers in standard form.
n You should know the definition of a logarithm and be able to work with logarithms including those with base e:
a = bx is equivalent to log b a = x
n For base 10:
log10x = x 10 log
x =x
n For base e:
lne x = x elnx = x

n You should be able to use logarithms to solve simple exponential equations.

n Mixed Practice
1A rectangle is 2680 cm long and 1970 cm wide.
a Find the perimeter of the rectangle, giving your answer in the form a × 10k , where 1 a < 10 and k ϵ ℤ.
b Find the area of the rectangle, giving your answer correct to the nearest thousand square
centimetres.
Mathematical Studies SL May 2009 TZ2 Paper 1 Q1

(3xy
)2
2

2 Simplify .
(xy)
3

3x2y −3)
−2
without brackets or negative indices.
3 Write (
4 ℤipf’s law in geography is a model for how the population of a city (P) in a country depends on the
rank of that city (R), that is, whether it is the largest (R = 1), second largest (R = 2), and so on. The
suggested formula is =P kR −1.
In a particular country the second largest city has a population of 2 000 000.
a Find the value of k.
b What does the model predict to be the size of the fourth largest city?
c What does the model predict is the rank of the city with population 250 000?
5 Find the exact solution of = 8+x 2 x 6.

6 Show that if = a× 3 108 and = × b 4 104 then = × ab 1.2 1013 .

a
7 Show that if = a× 1 109 and = × −b 5 10 4 then = × b 2 1012 .
8 Show that if = a× 3 104 and = × b 5 105 then − = b× a 4.7 105 .

9 The speed of light is approximately 3 × 108 m s-1 . The distance from the Sun to the Earth is 1.5 1011 m.
Find the time taken for light from the Sun to reach the Earth.
10 Find the exact solution of log (x)+ 1=2 .
ln 2 x 3.
11 Find the exact solution to ( ) =
12 Use technology to solve =e
x 2.

13 Use technology to solve 5 10 17x = .

Mixed Practice 21

14 Rearrange to make x the subject of 5e x1− = y .

15 a Given that 2m = 8 and 2n = 16, write down the value of m and of n.
b Hence or otherwise solve 82x +1 = 162x – 3.
Mathematics SL May 2015 TZ1 Paper 1 Q3

You are given that (7 10 ) (4 × 10

× ) = c× 10
a b d
16
where 1 < c d
10 and ∈ .
a Find the value of c.
b Find an expression for d in terms of a and b.
17 You are given that (6 10 ) (5 ÷ ×
a 10 ) b
= c× 10 d
where 1 < c 10 and d ∈ .
a Find the value of c.
b Find an expression for d in terms of a and b.
18 The Henderson–Hasselbach equation predicts that the pH of blood is given by:
⎛ ⎡HCO
⎣ −3 ⎤ ⎞⎦
pH 6.1
= log+ ⎜⎝ ⎡H CO ⎤⎟⎠⎦
⎣ 23
where ⎡ HCO
⎣ −3⎤is⎦ the concentration of bicarbonate ions and ⎡ ⎣ H CO ⎤ ⎦
is the concentration of carbonic
23
acid (created by dissolved carbon dioxide). Given that the bicarbonate ion concentration is maintained
at 0.579 moles per litre, find the range of concentrations of carbonic acid that will maintain blood pH
at normal levels (which are between 7.35 and 7.45).

19 In attempting to set a new record, skydiver Felix Baumgartner jumped from close to the edge of the
Earth’s atmosphere. His predicted speed (v) in metres per second at a time t seconds after he jumped
was modelled by: v = 1350 (1 −e − 0.007 t ).
a Find the predicted speed after one second.
b Baumgartner’s aim was to break the speed of sound (300 ms-1 ). Given that he was in free fall for
600 seconds, did he reach the speed of sound? Justify your answer.

20 The Richter scale measures the strength of earthquakes. The strength (S) is given by S = log A,
where A is the amplitude of the wave measured on a seismograph in micrometres.
a If the amplitude of the wave is 1000 micrometres, find the strength of the earthquake.
b If the amplitude on the seismograph multiplies by 10, what is the effect on the strength of the
earthquake?
c The 1960 earthquake in Chile had a magnitude of 9.5 on the Richter scale. Find the amplitude of
the seismograph reading for this earthquake.
x
21 Solve 3 20 = 2+ x1.
22 Solve the simultaneous equations: 9 x3× 1= y

4x
= 16
2y
23 Solve the simultaneous equations: log(xy) = 0
x2
log ⎛ ⎞ 3
⎝⎜ y ⎠⎟ =