INTRODUCTION

After the data have been collected the next step is to present them in
some suitable form. When data are presented in easy to read form, it
can help the reader to acquire knowledge in much shorter period of
time and also facilitate statistical analysis. Presentation can take two
basic forms
➢ Statistical table
➢ Statistical chart

A statistical table is a presentation of numbers in a logical arrangement,

with some brief explanation to show what they are. A statistical chart
or a graph is a pictorial device for presenting data.
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

TABULATION OF DATA

CHARTING DATA
1 CLASSIFICATION
OF DATA
Classification is the grouping of related facts into different classes. Facts
in one class differ from those in another class with respect to some
characteristics called a basis of classification.

Classification of statistical data is comparable to the sorting operation.

The process of classification gives prominence to important information
gathered while dropping unnecessary details facilitates comparison and
enables a statistical treatment of the material collected.
TYPES OF
CLASSIFICATION
GEOGRAPHICAL

CHRONOLOGICAL

QUALITATIVE

QUANTITATIVE
 GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION

In geographical classification data are classified on the STATES POPULATION (IN ‘000)
basis of geographical or locational differences between
the various items. For example when we present the ASSAM 31,205
production of sugarcane wheat, rice, etc., for various BIHAR 1,04,088
States, this would be called geographical classification.
GOA 1,439
Geographical classifications are usually listed in an GUJARAT 60,358
alphabetical order for easy reference. Items may also
be listed by size of to emphasize the important areas HARYANA 23,369
as in ranking the states by population.
 CHRONOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

YEAR SALE (In RS. CRORES)

When data are observed over a period of time that
type of classification is 2014 36.1
known as Chronological classification.
2015 43.9

2016 54.8
Time Series are usually listed in chronological order
normally starting with the earliest time period. 2017 68.4

2018 84.4
 QUALITATIVE CLASSIFICATION

Qualitative classification data are classified on the basis of

some attribute or quality such as sex,colour,literacy,
religion,etc. This type of classification is that the attribute
under study cannot be measured, one can only find out
whether it is present or absent in the units of the
population under study.
SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION
POPULATION

BLINDS NON- BLINDS

when only one attribute is studied, two classes are formed, one
possessing the attribute and the other not possessing it.This type of
classification is known as simple classification. For example comma
is the attribute under study is Blindness, we may find out how
many persons are blind in a given population. it is not possible to
measure the degree of blindness in each case.
MANIFOLD CLASSIFICATION POPULATION

MALES FEMALES

EMPLOYED UN-EMPLOYED EMPLOYED UN-EMPLOYED

If instead of forming only two classes we further divide the data on

the basis of some attribute or attributes so as to form several
classes the classification is known as manifold classification.
 QUANTITATIVE CLASSIFICATION
It refers to the classification of data according to some characteristics that
can be measured such as height, weight, income sales etc.

In this type of classification there are two elements namely the variable
and frequency. The quantitative classification gives birth to frequency
distribution. Variable may be either continuous or
discrete(discontinuous). Continuous data are obtained through
measurements. Discontinuous data are derived by counting. Series which
can be described by a continuous variable are called continuous series.
series represented by a discrete variable are called discrete series.
 QUANTITATIVE CLASSIFICATION

NO. OF CHILDREN NO. OF FAMILIES INCOME IN RS. NO. OF EMPLYEES

0 10 4000-4500 50

1 400 4500-5000 100

2 800 5000-5500 150

3 700 5500-6000 40

4 150 6000-6500 30
FORMATION OF A
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
 The process of preparing this type of distribution is very simple. we
have just to count the number of times a particular value is repeated,
which is called the frequency of that class. In order to facilitate
counting, prepare a column of Tally. In another column, place all
possible values of the variable from the lowest to the
highest.

In order to make the series more compact so that its characteristics can
be easily studied, data may be classified according to class
intervals.
The number of washing machines sold on 22 working days by a leading agency
house. 23,30,20,26,30,30,23,20,30,23,26,28,40,23,20,26,40

No. of Washing Machines Tally Bars Frequency ( No. of days )

20 3

23 4

26 3

28 1

23 4

40 3
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CLASS- INTERVALS
Class Limits
Class limits are the lowest and the highest values that can be Income (Rs.) No. of employees
included in the class. For example take the class 5000-6000. The
lowest value of the class is 5000 and the highest 6000. The two 5000-6000 50
boundaries of class are known as the lower limit and upper limit
of the class. 6000-7000 100

7000-8000 150
Class Frequency
The number of observations corresponding to the particular class 8000-9000 40
is known as the frequency of that class or the class
frequency. 9000-10000 30
CLASS MID – POINT Income (Rs.) No. of employees

5000-6000 50
It is the value line
6000-7000 100
halfway between 7000-8000 150
the lower and 8000-9000 40
upper class limits 9000-10000 30

of a class interval.
There are two methods of classifying the data
according to class intervals.

EXCLUSIVE INCLUSIVE
METHOD METHOD
 EXCLUSIVE METHOD
Income (Rs.) No. of employees
When the class intervals are so fixed that the
upper limit of one class is the lower limit of 5000-6000 50
the next class, it is known as the Exclusive 6000-7000 100
method of classification. it is clear that the
7000-8000 150
Exclusive method and ensure continuity of
data in as much as the upper limit of one class 8000-9000 40

is the lower limit of the next class. 9000-10000 30

 INCLUSIVE METHOD
Income (Rs.) No. of employees

5000-5999 50
Under the inclusive method of classification
6000-6999 100
the upper limit of one
class is included in that class itself. 7000-7999 150

8000-8999 40

9000-9999 30
 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
1.The number of classes should preferably be between 5 and 15. However there is no
rigidity about it .The classes can be more than 15 depending upon the total number of
observations in the data and the details required but they should not be less than 5
because in that case that classification may not will reveal the essential
characteristics.

2 As possible one should avoid Odd values of class intervals e.g.,,3, 7,11 ,26,39 etc.
Preferably one should have class intervals of multiples of 5 like 10, 20,25, 100, etc.
.However where the data necessitate a class- interval of less than 5 it can be any value
between 1 and 4.
 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
3. The starting point that is the lower limit of the first
class, should either be 0 or 5 or multiple of 5.

4 To ensure continuity and to get correct class interval we should adopt an

exclusive method of classification. however where an inclusive method has been
adopted it is necessary to make an adjustment to determine the correct class interval
and to have continuity.
Income (Rs.) No. of employees Income (Rs.) No. of employees

5000-5999 50 4999.5-5999.5 50

6000-6999 100 5999.5-6999.5 100

7000-7999 150 6999.5-7999.5 150

8000-8999 40 7999.5-8999.5 40

9000-9999 30 8999.5-9999.5 30
 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

5If intervals are not of uniform width. It is difficult to make

meaningful comparison between classes.
2 TABULATION OF DATA
 Tabulation Of Data

One of the simplest and most revealing devices for summarizing data is
the statistical table. A table is a systematic arrangement of
statistical data in columns and rows. Rows are horizontal
arrangements, whereas columns are vertical ones. The purpose of a table
is to simplify the presentation and to facilitate comparisons.
 PARTS OF A TABLE

Table number
Title of the table
caption stub
Body of the table
Headnote
Footnote.
 PARTS OF A TABLE
Table number
Each table should be numbered .There are
different practices with regard to the place
where this number is to be given. The
number may be given either in the center
at the top above the title or in the side of
the table at the top or at the bottom of
the table on the left hand side. However, if
space permits the table number should be
given in the center.
 Title of the table
Every table must have a suitable title. The
title is a description of the contents of the
table. Title should be clear, brief and self
explanatory. However, clarity should not
be sacrificed in the sake of brevity. A long
title cannot be read as promptly as a short
title, but at times they may have to be
used for the sake of clarity. The title
should be worded that it permits one and
only one interpretation.
 CAPTION
Caption refers to the column headings. It
explains what the column represents. It may
consist of one or more column headings. under a
column heading there may be subheads. The
caption should be clearly defined and placed at
the middle of the column. If the different
columns are expressed in different units the unit
should be specified along with the captions. As
compared with the main part of the table the
caption should be shown in smaller letters. This
helps in saving space.
 STUB
As distinguished from caption stubs are the
designation of the rows headings. They are at
the extreme left and perform the same function
for the horizontal rows or numbers in the table
as the column headings do for the vertical
columns or numbers. The stubs are usually wider
than column headings but they should be kept
as narrow as possible without sacrificing
precision and clarity of statements.
 BODY OF THE TABLE
The table contains the numerical information.
This is the most vital part of the table. Data
presented in the body arranged according to
descriptions are classifications of the captions
and stubs.
 HEADNOTE
It is a brief explanation statement applying to all over major part of the material in the table, and is
placed below the title entered and enclosed in brackets. It is used to explain certain points relating to
the whole table that have not been included in the title nor in the captions or stubs. For example, the
unit of measurement is frequently written as the headnote such as
"In thousands or "in crores" etc.
 FOOTNOTE
Anything in a table which the Reader may find difficult to understand from the title captions and stubs
should be explained in footnotes. If footnotes are needed, they are placed directly below the body of
the table.
 Footnotes are used for four main purposes
➢ To point out any exceptions as to the basis of arriving at the data.

➢ Any special circumstances affecting the data.

➢ To clarify anything in the table.

➢ To gives the source in case of secondary data. the reference to the source
should be complete in itself, for example if data obtained from some
periodical it names date of Publication page number, Table Number extra
should be mention so that is the user wishes to check the data from the
original source he will know where to look for the information.
REVIEW OF THE TABLE
 For a table is released it should be reviewed for form, content validity and clerical accuracy. It is
difficult for the person preparing the table to make a thoroughly satisfactory checks on all the four
aspects. The person, who has prepared the table might have done his best, but he can hardly review
it objectively. He should, if possible, get his work reviewed by some experienced person.
The reviewer should ask himself the following questions to determine whether or not table is
satisfactory.
Does the title clearly state what is in the table?
Are all the entries pertinent?
Is there unity of subject matter?
Are the classifications arranged so as to focus attention on the main comparisons?
Are the data arranged show that to emphasize important points?
Does the table include adequate interpretative figures such as total percentage and averages?
Are there notations about peculiarities of the data?
Is the source properly stated?
is the table in proper form, so that it presents an attractive appearance?
TYPES OF TABLES
 TYPES OF TABLES

➢SIMPLE AND COMPLEX TABLES.

➢GENERAL PURPOSE ANDD SPECIAL PURPOSE TABLES.
 SIMPLE TABLE
AGE(in years) No. of employees

Below 25 60
In a simple table only one characteristic is 25-35 65
shown. Hence, this type of table is also known
35-45 63
as one way table.
45-55 24

55 and above 8
 COMPLEX TABLE
EMPLOYEES
Age (in years) Males Females Total

Below 25 32 18 50

25-35 40 27 67

35-45 25 18 43

45-55 10 5 15

55 and above 5 0 5

In a complex table two or more characteristics are shown such tables are more popular in practice because they enable full
information to be incorporated and facilitate proper consideration of all related facts. When two characteristics are shown, a
table is known as a two way table or double tabulation.
 HIGHER ORDER TABLE
When three or more characteristics are represented in the same table
such a table is called higher order table. The need for such a table arises
when we are interested in presenting a number of characteristics
simultaneously.

It should be remembered that as the number of characteristics

represented increases the table becomes more and more confusing and
as such normally not more than four characteristics should be
represented in the same table.
 GENERAL PURPOSE TABLE
General Purpose tables, also known as the reference tables or repository
tables, provide information for general use or reference. They usually
contain detailed information and are not constructed for specific
discussion. In other words these table serve as a repository of
Information and are used for easy reference .For example Tables
published by government agencies are mostly of this kind, such as the
table contained in statistical Abstract of Indian Union tables, in the census
report etc.
 SPECIAL TYPE PURPOSE TABLE
Special purpose tables, also known as summary or analytical tables,
provide information for particular discussion. they show relationship
between different groups Of figure. These tables are also called derivative
tables since they are often derived from general tables.

The large detailed tables in the census record of the Government of India
are general purpose tables. when such data are used, they
are ordinarily taken from the general purpose tables and presented as
special purpose tables which emphasize the relation the user wishes to
stress.
3 CHARTING DATA
 One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which data may be
presented is through charts. A pictorial presentation helps in quick
understanding of the data. As the number and magnitude of figures
increases they become more confusing Through pictorial presentation
data can be presented in an interesting form. Not only
this, charts have greater memorizing effect as the impressions created by
them last much longer than those created by the figures.
 CHART

DIAGRAM GRAPH
DIAGRAMS
 For representing data diagrams are more commonly used than graphs.

General Rules for constructing Diagrams

TITLE Every diagram must be given a suitable title. The title should convey in
as few words as possible the main idea that the diagram is intended to portray.
However the brevity should not be secured at the cost of clarity .The title may be
given either at the top of the diagram or below it.

Proportion between Width and height

A proper proportion between the height and width of the diagram should be maintained. If either the
height or width is too short or too long in proportion the diagram would give an Gangly look. while
there are no fixed rules about the dimensions.
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE SCALE
The scale showing the values should be in even numbers or in multiples of 5 or 10
for example 25,50, 75 old values like 1,3,5,7 should be avoided.

FOOTNOTES
In order to clarify certain points about the diagram, footnotes may be given in
the bottom of the diagram.

INDEX An index illustrating different types of lines or different Shades

colors should be given so that the reader can easily make out the
meaning of the diagram.
NEATNESS AND CLEANLINESS
Diagrams should be absolutely neat and clean.

Simplicity
Diagrams should be as simple as possible so that the reader can understand
their meaning clearly. For the sake of simplicity it is important that too much
material should not be loaded in a single diagram otherwise it may become to
confusing.
TYPES OF DIAGRAMS
 ONE DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAM

DIAGRAMS TWO DIMENSIONAL DIAGRAM

PICTOGRAMS AND CARTOGRAMS

ONE DIMENSIONAL
DIAGRAMS
Bar diagrams are the most common type
Turnover (Rs Lakh)
of diagrams used in practice. A bar is a
thick line whose width is shown merely 2000 1789
for attention. They are called one 1800
1514
1600
dimensional because it is only the length 1400 1213
of the bar that matters and not the 1200
width. When the number of observations 1000
800
is large lines may be drawn instead of 600
bars to economies space. 400
200
Merits 0 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

➢ They are easily understood

➢ They our simplest and easiest to make
➢ When a large number of observations are to be compared, they are the only form that can be used
effectively.
CONSTRUCTION OF BAR DIAGRAMS

➢ The width should be uniform throughout the diagram.

➢ The gap between one bar and another should be uniform
throughout.
➢ Bars may be either horizontal or vertical. The vertical bar should be
preferred because they give a better look and also facilitate
comparison.
➢ While constructing the bar diagrams, it is desirable to write the
respective figure at the end of each bar so that the reader can know
the precise value without looking at the scale.
TYPES OF BAR DIAGRAMS
Simple bar diagrams
Subdivided bar diagrams
Multiple bar diagrams
Percentage bar diagrams
Deviation bars
Broken bars
 Simple bar diagrams Turnover (Rs Lakh)

2000 1789
1800
1514
1600
1400 1213
Diagram is used to represent only one 1200
variable. For example the figures of Sales, 1000
800
Production, Population etc. for various 600
years may be shown by means of a 400
simple bar diagram. Since the bars are of 200
2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
0
same width and only the length varies, it
becomes very easy for the reader to
study the relationship.
Subdivided bar diagrams
Turnover (Rs Lakh)
These diagrams are used to represent
various parts of the total. While constructing such 2000 1789
a diagram the various components in each bar 1800
should be kept in the same order. To distinguish 1514
1600
between the different components it is useful to 1400 1213
use different shades or colors. Index or key should 1200
be given explaining these 1000
differences. The subdivided bar diagram can be 800
600
vertical as well as horizontal.
400
200
0 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
Pencil Pen Eraser
Subdivided bar diagram should not be used where the number of components is more than 10 or
12,for, in that case, the diagram would be overloaded with information which cannot be easily
compared and understood.
Multiple bar diagrams
In multiple bar diagrams two or more Corporate Sector Profits
sets of interrelated data are represented. 3500
3104 3123
The technique of drawing such a diagram
3000
is the same as that of simple bar diagram
.Only difference is that since more than 2500
one phenomenon is represented,
different Shades, colors, dots or 2000
Crossings are used to distinguish 1663 1376
between the bars. 1500
1219
Gross profits 846 982
1000
589
Profits before tax 500
Profits after tax 0 2008-09 2009-10
Retained profits Years
Percentage bar diagrams 100%
Distribution of Turnover (Rs Lakh)

Percentage bar diagrams are particularly

useful in statistical work which requires 90%
the portrayal of relative changes in data. 507 624 735

Eraser
80%
When such diagrams are prepared, the
length of the bars is kept equal to 100 70%
and segments are cut in these bars to
60%
represent the components of an

Pen
aggregate. 50%

40% 406 560 604

Pencil
Year 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 30%
Pencil 300 330 450
Pen 406 560 604 20%
Eraser 507 624 735 450
10% 300 330

0%
2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
Deviation bar 80%
%age change in sales and net profit over previous year

sales Net Profits

Deviation bars are popularly used for representing
net quantities that are net profit, net loss, net 60%
exports or imports etc. such bars can have both
positive and negative values. Positive values are 40% 61%
shown above the baseline and negative values
below it. 20%
29%
14% 17%
11%
0
2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
Year Sales Net Profits -20%
2007-08 14% 29%
2008-09 11% 61% -40%
2009-10 17% -74%
-60% -74%

-80%
 Broken bars
In certain type of data there may be
wide variation in values some values
may be very small other very large. In
order to gain space for the smaller bars
of the data the large bars may be
broken.
TWO DIMENSIONAL
DIAGRAMS
 In two dimensional diagrams the length as well as the width
of the bars is considered. Thus the area of the bar represents the given
data. The two dimensional diagrams are also known as surface diagrams
or area diagrams. The important type of such diagrams are

➢RECTANGLES
➢SQUARES
➢CIRCLES
Rectangles
Since the area of a rectangle is equal to the product of its Length and
width, while constructing such a diagram both length and width are
considered. when two sets of figures Represented by rectangles either
of the two methods may be adopted.

We may represent the figures as they are given or may convert them to
percentages and then subdivide the length into various components.
The latter method is more popular than the former as it enables
comparison to be made on a percentage basis.
 Rectangles
Two companies A and B produce the
same item. Company A produced
2000 units in January 2011 and in the
same month company produced 2400
units. The production cost per unit for
company A and company B was Rs 12
and Rs 10.5 respectively. Represent
these facts by using rectangles
diagram.
 Squares
The rectangular method of diagrammatic
presentation is difficult to use where the
values of items vary widely .For example if the
ratio of width is weird the diagram would look
very unwieldy. It is in order to overcome the
difficulty that squares are used.

Method of drawing a square diagram is very

simple. one has to take the square root of the
values of various items that are to be shown in
the diagram and then select a suitable scale to
draw the Squares.
 Circles
In such diagrams both the total and the
components parts of the sectors can be shown.
In these diagrams the radius of the circles are
proportional to the square roots of the figure.
circles can be used in all those cases in which
squares are used.

circles are difficult to compare and as such

they are not very popular in statistical work.
When it is necessary to use circles they should
be compared on an area basis rather than on a
diameters. Compared to the rectangles circles
are more difficult to construct and interpret.
Pie Diagram
Type of diagram enables us to show the partitioning of a total into
component parts. A very common use of the pie chart is to represent
the division of a sum of money into components.
For example The entire pie may represent the budget of a family for a
month and the sections may represent the portions of the budget
allotted to rent, food, clothing and so on.

The pie chart is so called because the entire graph looks like a pie and
the components resemble slices cut from it.
Construction of pie diagram
Convert Absolute Values to percentage values.

Convert percentage values to Degrees

Draw the diagram with the help of a protector.

Arrange the sectors according to size, with the largest at the top and
others in sequence running clockwise.
 A company is started by the four persons A, B, C and D and they
distribute the profit or loss between them in proportion of 4:3:2:1. In
year 2010 company earned a profit of Rs 14400. Represent the shares of
their profits in a pie chart.
 Limitations of pie diagram
Diagrams are less effective than bar diagrams for accurate reading
and interpretation, particularly when series are divided into a large
number of components or the difference among the components is
very small. It is generally inadvisable to attempt to portray a series of
more than 5 or 6 categories by means of a pie chart.
THREE DIMENSIONAL
DIAGRAMS
 PICTOGRAMS
Pictograms, also known as picture grams, are
very popularly used in presenting statistical
data. They are not abstract presentations such
as lines or bars but really depict the kind of
data we are dealing with. Pictures are
attractive and easy to comprehend and as such
this method is particularly useful in presenting
statistics to the layman. The picture symbol
should be self-explanatory in nature.
 Merits
Pictograms have a great attraction value and, therefore, where the
attention of masses is to be drawn such as exhibitions fair etc., they
are very popularly used.

Facts portrayed in pictorial form are generally remembered longer

than facts presented in tables or in non-pictorial charts.
Limitations
They are difficult to construct. Besides, it is necessary to use one
symbol to represent a fixed number of units which may create
difficulties.
 CARTOGRAMS
Cartograms or statistical maps are used to give
quantitative information on a geographical
basis. The quantities on the map can be shown
in many ways such as, through shades of
colours,by dots, by placing pictograms in each
geographical units and by placing the
appropriate numerical figure in each
geographical unit.
GRAPHS
➢ Graphs of time series or line graphs
➢ Graphs of frequency distributions
GRAPHS OF TIME SERIES OR
LINE GRAPHS
When we observe the values of variables and different points of time the series so
formed is known as the time series. The technique of graphic presentation is
extremely helpful in analyzing changes at different points of time. on the X-axis we
generally take time and on the Y-axis value of the variable and join the various
points by straight lines. The graph formed is known as line graph. Also several
variables can be shown on the same graph and a comparison can be made.

One of the fundamental rules while constructing graphs is that the scale on the y-
axis should begin with zero even if the lowest Y- figures associated with any X-
period is far away from zero. To solve this difficulty the use of false baseline is
made. When a false base has been used, the space between zero and the smallest
value of the variable is omitted i.e. zigzag horizontal lines are drawn above the
baseline.
 RANGE CHART
It is a very good method of showing the range
of variation that is the minimum and
maximum values of a variable. For example if
we are interested in showing the minimum and
maximum temperature or the minimum and
maximum prices of shares of company for
different periods, the range chart would be
very appropriate.
 BAND GRAPHS
The band graph shows how and in what proportion the individual items
comprising the aggregate are distributed. The various component parts of the
whole are pottered one over the other and the gaps between the successive
lines are filled by different shades, Colors, etc. so that chart has the appearance
of a series of bands. Such a chart is specially useful in dividing total cost into
component cost, total sales into department or distinct or individual salesman's
sales, total production by nature of commodity and other such relations.
BAND GRAPHS
GRAPHS OF DISTRIBUTION
 Histogram
The statistical meaning of histogram is that it is a graph that represents the class
frequency in frequency distribution by vertical adjacent rectangle. While
constructing histogram the variable is always taken on X-axis and the frequency
depending on it on the Y-axis. Each class is then represented by a distance that
is proportional to its class interval. The distance for each rectangle on x-axis
shall remain the same in case the class intervals are uniform through out, if they
are different the width of the rectangle shall also vary.

Limitations
Histogram cannot be constructed for distributions with open end classes.
➢ Histogram
➢ Frequency Polygon
➢ Smoothened Frequency Curve
➢ Cumulative frequency curves or ogives
 Difference between
Bar diagrams and Histograms
Bar Diagram is one dimensional that is, only the
length of the bar is important and not the width.

Histogram is two dimensional, that is, in histogram

both the length as well as Width are important.
 Construction of Histogram when class
intervals are equal

In such
heights of the rectangles will
be proportional to the
frequencies.
 Construction of Histogram when class
intervals are unequal
When Class intervals are unequal the frequencies must be adjusted
before constructing the histogram. For making the adjustment we
take that class which has the lowest class interval and adjust the
frequencies of other classes in the following manner, if one class
interval is twice as wide as the one having lowest class interval, we
divide the height of its rectangle by 2 if its three times more, we
divide the height of rectangle by 3,etc
Construction of Histogram when class
intervals are unequal
Weekly Profits(in 000’s Rs) No. of shops
110-115 7

115-120 19

120-125 27

125-130 15

130-140 12

140-160 12

160-180 8
 Frequency Polygon
Frequency polygon is a graph of frequency distribution. There are
two ways in which a frequency polygon may be constructed.
➢ we may draw a histogram of the given data and then join by straight lines the mid points of
the upper horizontal side of each rectangle with the adjacent rectangle. The figure formed
are called frequency polygon. However it is prefer to close both the ends of the polygon by
extending them to the baseline.

➢ Another method of constructing frequency polygon is to take the mid points of the various
class intervals and then prove the frequency corresponding to each point end to join all these
points by straight line .In this method the construction of histogram is not required.
Frequency Polygon
 Frequency Polygon
Note:-
➢ By constructing a frequency polygon the value of mode can easily be calculated if
from the top of the polygon a perpendicular is drawn on the x-axis, we get the
value of mode.

➢ Frequency polygons have a special advantage over the histogram. The frequency polygons as
several distributions may be plotted on the same axis thereby making certain comparison
possible. To compare histogram we must have a separate graph for each because of this limitation
for purpose in making a graph comparison of frequency distribution frequency polygons are
preferred.
 Smoothed Frequency Curve
Frequency curve can be drawn through the various points of the
polygon. The curve is drawn free hand in such a manner that the
area included under the curve is approximately the same as that of
the polygon.
The curve Should look as regular as possible and all sudden turns should be avoided. The
polygon can be constructed even without first constructing a histogram by plotting the
frequency at the mid points of the class interval. This may save some time but the smoothening
of polygon cannot be done properly without a histogram. This curve should begin and end at the
baseline and as a general rule it may be extended to the midpoints of the class intervals just
outside the histogram.
Smoothed Frequency Curve
 Cumulative Frequency Curve
When frequencies are added they are called Cumulative frequencies.
These frequencies are then listed in a table called the Cumulative
frequency table. The graph of such a distribution is called a
Cumulative Frequency curve or ogive.

Two methods of constructing ogive.

The 'less than' method
The 'more than' method
 In the ‘less than' method we start with the upper limits of the class
and go on adding the frequency. when these frequencies are plotted
we get our rising curve.

In the 'more than' method we start with lower limits of the

classes and form the total frequencies we subtract the
frequency of each class. When these frequencies are
plotted,we get a declining curve.