Unit-1

Diode Circuits
1 P-N junction diode
2 I-V characteristics of a diode
3 Review of Half-wave and Full-wave rectifiers
4 Clamping and Clipping circuits
5 Input output characteristics of BJT in CB, CE, CC configuration
6 Biasing circuits
7 Load line analysis
8 Common Emitter, Common Base and common Collector amplifiers
9 Small signal equivalent circuits

1
 MATERIALS

Based on the electrical properties of the materials like

conductivity, materials are divided into three types.

i) Conductors
ii) Semiconductors
iii) Insulators

2
 Conductors

❖A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of

charge when a voltage is applied across its terminals. i.e. it has
very highconductivity.

✓Ex: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, and Gold.

✓The resistivity of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 Ω-cm.

3
 Insulators

➢Aninsulator is a material that offers a very low level of c

onductivity when voltage is applied.
•Ex: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz.

•Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order of 1010 to

1012 Ω-cm.

4
 Semiconductors

•A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity lies

between the insulator and conductor.

•The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 104 Ω-cm.

•Ex: Si & Ge

5
 1. PN junction diode

❖A PN junction is a device formed by joining p-type with n- type semiconductors

and separated by a thin junction is called PN Junction diode or junction diode.

❖This formation of PN Junction is called diode as it has two electrodes one for p-
region called as Anode and other for N region called as cathode.

6
 1.PN junction diode (continue..)

• P-Type Material: The majority charge carriers are holes and minority
carriers are electrons.

• N-Type Material: The majority charge carriers are Electrons and minority
carriers are holes.

7
 1.P-N Junction Diode(continue…)

When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to

n-type semiconductor the contact surface is called a p-n
junction.
P N
++

Depletion region

❖The tendency of the free electrons to diffuse from the n-side to p-side and holes
from p-region to n-region is called diffusion.

❖Diffusion is the process by which charge carrier moves from high concentration
to low concentration region.
8
 1.P-N Junction Diode(continue….)

Depletion Region :

❖The free electrons from n-side to p-side region and recombine with the holes in
p-region.

❖ Thus negative charged immobile ions are formed near the junction.

❖ The depletion layer contains no free and mobile charge carriers but only fixed
and immobile ions.

❖ Its width depends upon the doping level.

❖ Heavily doped……..Thin depletion layer

❖ lightly doped……..Thick depletion layer

9
 1.PN Junction diode(continue….)

Operation of a PN Junction diode

Forward bias mode : positive terminal connected to p-region
and negative terminal connected to n region.
Reverse bias mode: negative terminal connected to p-region
and positive terminal connected to n region

10
 1.PN Junction diode(continue….)

PN junction –Forward Bias

•It forces the majority charge carriers to move across the junction
decreasing the width of the depletion layer.
11
 1.PN Junction diode(continue….)

PN junction –Forward Bias

❖When a diode is connected in a FB condition, a negative voltage is
applied to the N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-type
material.

❖If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential
barrier, i.e. 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge, the potential barriers opposition will
be overcome and current will start.

❖The application of a FB voltage on the junction diode results in the

depletion layer becoming very thin which represents a low impedance path
through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow.

12
 1.PN Junction diode(continue….)

PN junction –Reverse Bias

The free electrons and free holes are attracted towards the
battery,hence depletion layer width increases.
13
 1.PN Junction diode(continue….)

PN junction –Reverse Bias

❖When a diode is connected in a Reverse bias condition, a positive voltage
is applied to the N-type material and a negative voltage is applied to the P-
type material.

❖The positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts electrons

towards the positive electrode and away from the junction, while the holes in
the P-type end are also attracted away from the junction towards the
negative electrode.

❖The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of
electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path, almost an
insulator.
❖The result is that a high potential barrier is created thus preventing current
from flowing through the semiconductor material.

14
 2. I-V Ccharacteristics of a Diode
Forward V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode:
❖ In forward biased p-n junction diode, VF
represents the forward voltage whereas IF
represents the forward current.
❖The horizontal line in the above figure represents
the amount of voltage applied across the p-n
junction diode whereas the vertical line represents
the amount of current flows in the p-n junction
diode

Forward V-I characteristics of silicon diode

❖If the external voltage applied on the silicon diode is less than 0.7 volts, the silicon diode
allows only a small electric current.
❖ However, this small electric current is considered as negligible. When the external
voltage applied on the silicon diode reaches 0.7 volts, the p-n junction diode starts
allowing large electric current through it.
❖At this point, a small increase in voltage increases the electric current rapidly.
❖The forward voltage at which the silicon diode starts allowing large electric current is
called cut-in voltage.
❖The cut-in voltage for silicon diode is approximately 0.7 volts.
1
 2. I-V Ccharacteristics of a Diode (Continue…)

Reverse V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode:

❖In reverse biased p-n junction diode, VR represents the Reverse voltage whereas
IR represents the reverse current.
❖When reverse voltage is increased, reverse saturation current increases initially
up to certain voltage.
❖After some extent, the current remains constant although reverse voltage is
increased.
❖This current is called reverse saturation current I0 , the point at which breakdown
occurs and reverse saturation current increases rapidly is called knee of the reverse
characteristics.
2
2. I-V Ccharacteristics of a Diode (Continue…)

3
 3. Review of half-wave and full-wave rectifiers

❖ A rectifier is a electrical device that converts ac voltage of main

supply into pulsating dc voltage using one or more PN junction
diodes is called rectifier.
❖ rectifiers are used in power supplies for radio, television and
computer equipment.
❖ basically a diode conducts in only one direction, hence diode is the
basic device used in all rectifier circuits.

➢ Types of rectifier:
• Half Wave Rectifier
• Full Wave Rectifier
• Bridge Rectifier

1
 Half Wave Rectifier

❖The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc

level is called half wave rectification.
❖ In Half wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current during positive half
cycle of input ac signal only.
❖ Negative half cycle is suppressed.

2
 Half Wave Rectifier
❖During the positive half cycle, the
diode is under forward bias
condition and it conducts current
to RL (Load resistance).
❖A voltage is developed across the
load, which is same as the input
AC signal of the positive half cycle.

❖During the negative half cycle, the

diode is under reverse bias condition
and there is no current flow through
the diode.
❖Only the AC input voltage appears
across the load and it is the net result
which is possible during the positive
half cycle.
❖The output voltage pulsates the DC
voltage.
3
 Half Wave Rectifier

❖ During positive half cycle of the input signal vi= Vm sin (wt)
❖ The diode D is forward biased and acts as a short. Hence a current iL flows through the
load RL and produces load voltage v0
❖ During negative half cycle of the input signal vi= Vm sin (wt)
❖ The diode D is reverse biased and acts as open.
❖ Hence practically no current flows through the load RL and no voltage across the load.
❖ The output of HWR is not a perfect DC, but at least unidirectional. 4
CLAMPING AND CLIPPING
CIRCUITS
CLIPPER
➢A clipper is a device that removes either the positive
half (top half) or negative half (bottom half) of the
input AC signal,

➢In some cases, a clipper removes a small portion of

the positive half cycle or negative half cycle or both
positive and negative half cycles.
Types of clippers
• Series positive clipper\

• Series negative clipper

• Shunt positive clipper

• Shunt negative clipper

• Dual (combination) clipper

Series positive clipper:
• In series positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input AC
signal is removed.

• In the circuit diagram(next page), the diode D is connected in series

with the output load resistance RL and the arrowhead of the diode is
pointing towards the input.

• So the circuit is said to be a series positive clipper.

Series positive clipper:
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and terminal B is
negative.

• That means the positive terminal A is connected to n-side and the negative
terminal B is connected to p-side of the diode.

• Then the diode is said to be reverse bias

• Therefore, the diode D is reverse biased during the positive half cycle.

• During reverse biased condition, no current flows through the diode.

• So the positive half cycle is blocked or removed at the output.

Series Negative clipper:
• In series negative clipper, the negative half cycles of
the input AC signal is removed at the output.
• The circuit construction of the series negative clipper
is shown in the figure(next page).
• In a series negative clipper, the diode is connected in
a direction opposite to that of the series positive
clipper.
Series negative clipper
• During the positive half cycle, terminal A is positive and
terminal B is negative.

• That means the positive terminal A is connected to p-side and

the negative terminal B is connected to n-side of the diode.

• During forward biased condition, electric current flows through

the diode.

• So the positive half cycle is allowed at the output.

• Therefore, a series of positive half cycles appears at the output.

 Shunt positive clipper:
• In shunt clipper, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance.
• The operating principles of the shunt clipper are nearly opposite to the series clipper.

• The series clipper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is forward
biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is reverse biased.
Shunt negative clipper:
• In shunt negative clipper, during the positive half cycle the diode is
reverse biased and hence the entire positive half cycle appears at the
output.
 Dual (combination) clipper

• Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of both positive and negative half cycles.
In such cases, the dual clippers are used.
• The dual clippers are made by combining the biased shunt positive clipper and biased
shunt negative clipper.
Applications of clippers
• Clippers are commonly used in power supplies.

• Used in TV transmitters and Receivers

• They are employed for different wave generation such as square,

rectangular, or trapezoidal waves.

• Series clippers are used as noise limiters in FM transmitters.

 Clamper circuits
• A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC
level of a signal to the desired level without changing the
shape of the applied signal.
• In other words, the clamper circuit moves the whole signal
up or down to set either the positive peak or negative peak
of the signal at the desired level.
Types of clampers

• Positive clampers
• Negative clampers
 Positive clamper
• The positive clamper is made up of a voltage source Vi, capacitor C, diode D, and load resistor
RL.
• In the below circuit diagram, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load.
• So the positive clamper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is reverse
biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is forward biased.
Negative clamper
• During the positive half cycle of the input AC
signal, the diode is forward biased and hence no
signal appears at the output.
• In forward biased condition, the diode allows
electric current through it.
BJT: Bipolar Junction Transistor

1
CE Configuration

2
CB Configuration

3
CC Configuration

4
CE,CB,CC Configurations

5
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8.Common Emitter Amplifier,Common Base Amplifier and Common Collector
Amplifiers.

Common Emitter Amplifier:

,-------r-------�+Vcc Input

Re
R1 C2

C1 Output

RL
Vo
R2
vi RE
CE

fig:1. Common Emitter Amplifier

 8. Common Emitter, Common Base and Common Collector Amplifiers

Common Emitter Amplifier:

 A common terminal amplifier circuit is shown in above fig (1).

 The circuit consists of biasing resistors R1 and R2, the emitter resistor RE collector resistor RC.

 The bypass capacitor C is used to eliminate ac degeneration i.e., it bypass all ac signal and increase the output gain.

 The coupling capacitor C1 connects the signal source with the transistor base, C2 couples external load resistor RL to the
collector of transistor.

 C1 and C2 avoids the loading effect between input and out put.

1
 8. Common
8. Common Emitter,
Emitter, Common
Common Base
Base and
and Common
Common Collector
Collector Amplifiers
Amplifiers (Continue..)
(Continue..)

Operation:

When the input voltage is increased in positive direction, VBE is increased. Thus collector current IC increases, the
voltage drop occurs across RC

Apply KVL to collector circuit,

VCC = IC RC + VO
i.e VO = VCC – IC RC

 Characteristics:
1. Good voltage Gain
2. Phase inversion i.e output voltage is 180o out of phase with input.
3. Good current gain and power gain
4. High input and output impedance.

Applications :
Voltage amplifier.

2
Common Base Amplifier:

+Vee

rel
Re
R1 C3

-
Input
C2

C1 RL
Vo
R2 V·
RE
rs

--
fig: Common Base Amplifier
 8. Common
8. Common Emitter,
Emitter, Common
Common Base
Base and
and Common
Common Collector
Collector Amplifiers
Amplifiers (Continue..)
(Continue..)

Common Base Amplifier:

The base terminal is common between the input and output circuit. The input is applied to emitter terminal and
output is taken from the collector terminal.

Construction:

 The common base amplifier is shown in above fig (2).

 The potential divider bias is applied through resistors R1 and R2

 The load resistor RL is connected to transistor collector terminal.

The signal source is coupled to the transistor emitter through C2.

 Capacitor C1 constitutes an ac short circuit from the base terminal to ground.

 So, all the input voltage appear across base emitter junction

 Capacitor C3 accts as coupling capacitor and it prevents the loading effect due to RC and RL.
1
 8. Common
8. Common Emitter,
Emitter, Common
Common Base
Base and
and Common
Common Collector
Collector Amplifiers
Amplifiers (Continue..)
(Continue..)

Operation:

 During positive half of input signal, the emitter terminal is positive and base remains at a constant potential.

 Therefore, a positive – going signal reduces base –emitter voltage V BE , which in turn reduces collector current IC .
Thus the voltage drop across the collector resistor also decreases.

Apply KVL to collector circuit,

VCC = IC RC + VO
i.e VO = VCC – IC RC

 if IC reduces, then VO = VCC and there is no phase shift between the input and output.

 Characteristics: 1. Provides voltage gain and power gain, 2. high output impedance and very low input impedance.
3. No current gain.

 Application: High frequency voltage amplifier.

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 8. Common
8. Common Emitter,
Emitter, Common
Common Base
Base and
and Common
Common Collector
Collector Amplifiers
Amplifiers (Continue..)
(Continue..)

Common Collector Amplifier:

The collector terminal is common between the input and output terminals.
The input is applied at the base and the output is taken across the emitter terminal.

Construction:

 The common collector amplifier is shown in above fig (3).

 The collector base junction acts as input and emitter base junction acts as output.
 The output voltage exactly follows the input voltage variations.
 Hence it is called “Emitter follower” amplifier
 The load resistor RL is capacitor coupled to the emitter terminal of the transistor.
 The circuit employs emitter current bias through the voltage divider resistor R1 and R2.
 The capacitor C1 and C2 acts as input and output coupling capacitors..

1
 8. Common
8. Common Emitter,
Emitter, Common
Common Base
Base and
and Common
Common Collector
Collector Amplifiers
Amplifiers (Continue..)
(Continue..)

Operation:

 when an ac signal is applied to transistor base via C1, VB is increased and decreased as the signal varies from positive
to negative voltage variations.
VE = VB - VBE

 Thus the output voltage form a common collector circuit is same as its input voltage.
 so the CC amplifier has unity voltage gain.

 Characteristics: 1. Provides current gain and power gain, 2. High input impedance and very low output impedance.
3. No voltage gain.

 Application:
1. As buffer amplifier since voltage gain is unity.
2. Impedance matching network.

2
 8. Common
8. Common Emitter,
Emitter, Common
Common Base
Base and
and Common
Common Collector
Collector Amplifiers
Amplifiers (Continue..)
(Continue..)

Comparison of CE,CB and CC Amplifiers:

S.No. Characteristics CE CB CC

1 Input Impedance Low Very low High

2 Output Impedance High Very High Low

3 Input current IB IE IB

4 Output current IC IC IE

5 Current gain High High Less than 1

6 Voltage gain Medium Low High

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 Unit-2

MOSFET Circuits
1 MOSFET structure and I-V characteristics
2 MOSFET as a switch
small signal equivalent circuits - gain, input and output
3 impedances
small-signal model and common-source, common-gate and
4 common-drain amplifiers

5 trans conductance
6 high frequency equivalent circuit

1
 FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR

•An FET is a three-terminal unipolar semiconductor device. It is a

voltage controlled device unlike a bipolar junction transistor.

•The FET is a unipolar device, which means that it is made using

either p-type or n-type material as main substrate.

•Hence the current conduction of a FET is done by either

electrons or holes.

2
 FETs

The three terminals of FET are Gate, Source and Drain. The Source
terminal in FET is analogous to the Emitter in BJT, while Gate is
analogous to Base and Drain to Collector.

3
 Types of FETs

There are two main types of FETS. They are JFET and MOSFET.

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SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION OF MOSFET

5
SMALL-SIGNAL OPERATION OF MOSFET

MOSFET small signal equivalent circuit

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2. MOSFET AS SWITCH

CUT-OFF CHARACTERIOSTICS:
The input and Gate are grounded ( 0V ).
•Gate-source voltage less than
threshold voltage VGS < VTH
• MOSFET is “OFF” ( Cut-off region )
• No Drain current flows ( ID = 0 Amps)
• VOUT = VDS = VDD = ”1″
• MOSFET operates as an “open switch”

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2. MOSFET AS SWITCH (conti…)

SATURATION CHARACTERIOSTICS:
The input and Gate are connected
to VDD.
•Gate-source voltage is much greater
than threshold voltage VGS > VTH.
• MOSFET is “ON” ( saturation region )
• Max Drain current flows( ID = VDD /RL )
• VDS = 0V (ideal saturation)
• Min channel resistance RDS(on) < 0.1Ω
• VOUT = VDS ≅ 0.2V due to RDS(on)
• MOSFET operates as a low resistance
“closed switch”.

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 6.High frequency model of MOSFET

•The MOSFET's internal capacitances limit the high-

frequency performance of the MOSFET that means:
Limit the switching speed of the circuits in digital
applications.
Limit the frequency at which useful amplification can be
obtained in the amplifiers.

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1.MOSFET Structure and I-V characteristics

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