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Dynamical Systems

Shlomo Sternberg

June 4, 2009
2
Contents

1 Iteration and fixed points. 9

1.1 Square roots. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.1 Analyzing the steps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Newton’s method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 A fixed point of the iteration scheme is a solution to our
problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 The guts of the method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 A vector version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.4 Problems with the implementation of Newton’s method. 14
1.2.5 The existence theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.6 Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.7 Basins of attraction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.8 Cayley’s complex version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 The implicit function theorem via Newton’s method. . . . . . . . 22
1.3.1 The continuity, differentiability of the implicit function,
and the computation of its derivative. . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4 Attractors and repellers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.1 Attractors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.2 The basin of attraction of an attractor. . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.3 Repellers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4.4 Superattractors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4.5 Notation for iteration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.4.6 Periodic points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5 Renormalization group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.6 Iteration for kindergarten. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Bifurcations. 33
2.1 The logistic family. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.1 0 < µ ≤ 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2 µ = 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.3 µ > 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.4 1 < µ < 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.1.5 µ = 2 - the fixed point is superattractive. . . . . . . . . . 37
2.1.6 2 < µ < 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3
4 CONTENTS

2.1.7 µ = 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.8 µ > 3, points√of period two appear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.1.9 3 < µ < 1 + 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.10 Superattracting
√ period two points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.11 1 + 6 < µ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.12 Reprise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 The fold bifurcation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3 The period doubling bifurcation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.1 Description of the period doubling bifurcation. . . . . . 51
2.3.2 Statement of the period doubling bifurcation theorem. . . 52
2.3.3 Proof of the period doubling bifurcation theorem. . . . . . 54
2.4 Newton’s method and Feigenbaum’s constant. . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5 Feigenbaum renormalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

3 Sarkovsky’s theorem, Singer’s theorem, intermittency. 63

3.1 Period 3 implies all periods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.1.1 The Sarkovsky ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.1.2 Periodic points of period three for the logistic family. . . . 65
3.2 Singer’s theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.1 The Schwarzian derivative and some of its properties. . . 67
3.2.2 Proof and statement of Singer’s theorem. . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.3 Application to the logistic family. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3 Intermittency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4 Conjugacy. 77
4.1 Affine equivalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.1 Conjugacy in general. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.2 The tent transformation and L4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3 Chaos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.1 Transitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.2 Density of periodic points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.3 A definition of chaos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.4 The sawtooth transformation and the shift. . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Sensitivity to initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.5 Conjugacy for monotone maps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.6 Sequence space and symbolic dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.6.1 A new sequence space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6.2 The itinerary map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

5 Space and time averages. 103

5.1 Histograms and invariant densities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.1 Historgrams of iterations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.2 The histogram of L4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3 The mean ergodic theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4 The arc sine law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4.1 The random walk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
CONTENTS 5

5.4.2 The reflection principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.5 The Beta distributions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.6 Two proofs of Stirling’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.6.1 The Euler-Maclauren summation formula. . . . . . . . . . 125
5.6.2 Euler’s integral and Stirling’s formula. . . . . . . . . . . . 126

6 The contraction fixed point theorem. 129

6.1 Metrics and metric spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.2 Completeness and completion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2.1 Normed vector spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3 The contraction fixed point theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.3.1 Local contractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4 Dependence on a parameter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 The Lipschitz implicit function theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.5.1 The inverse function theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.5.2 The implicit function theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.6 The local existence theorem for solutions of differential equations. 140

7 The Hausdorff metric and Hutchinson’s theorem. 143

7.1 The Hausdorff metric. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
7.1.1 Contractions and the Hausdorff metric. . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.2 Hutchinson’s theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.3 Affine examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.3.1 The classical Cantor set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.3.2 The Sierpinski gasket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.3.3 A one line code for creating the Sierpinski gasket. . . . . 149
7.4 Hausdorff dimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.5 Similarity dimension of contracting ratio lists. . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.5.1 Contracting ratio lists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.6 Iterated function systems and fractals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.6.1 Realizations of a contracting ratio list. . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.7 Fractals and fractal dimension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

8 Hyperbolicity. 159
8.1 The conjugacy theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8.1.1 A global version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.1.2 The local version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
8.1.3 C ∞ conjugacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.2 Invariant manifolds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
8.2.1 The Lipschitzian case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

9 The Perron-Frobenius theorem. 175

9.1 Non-negative and positive matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.1.1 Primitive and irreducible non-negative square matrices. . 176
9.1.2 Statement of the Perron-Frobenius theorem. . . . . . . . . 176
9.1.3 Proof of the Perron-Frobenius theorem. . . . . . . . . . . 177
6 CONTENTS

9.2 Graphology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

9.2.1 Non-negative matrices and directed graphs. . . . . . . . . 181
9.2.2 Cycles and primitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.2.3 The Frobenius analysis of the irreducible non-primitive case.183
9.3 Asymptotic behavior of powers of a primitive matrix. . . . . . . . 185
9.4 The Leslie model of population growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.4.1 When is the Leslie matrix primitive? . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9.4.2 The limiting behavior when the Leslie matrix is primitive. 188
9.5 Markov chains in a nutshell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.6 The Google ranking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.6.1 The basic equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.6.2 Problems with H, the matrix S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.6.3 Problems with S, the Google matrix G. . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.6.4 Avoiding multiplying by G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.7 Eigenvalue sensitivity and reproductive value. . . . . . . . . . . . 193

10 Some topics in ordinary differential equations. 195

10.1 Linear equations with constant coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.1.1 Linear homogenous equations with constant coefficients. . 195
10.1.2 etB where B is a two by two real matrix. . . . . . . . . . 197
10.2 Hyperbolicity for differential equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.3 Bifurcations of differential equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.4 Variation of constants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.4.1 The operator version. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
10.4.2 The parametrix expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
10.5 The Poincaré-Bendixon theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.5.1 The ω-limit set. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.5.2 Statement of the Poincaré-Bendixon theorem. . . . . . . . 203
10.5.3 Properties of the omega limit set of a trajectory, in the
general case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.6 Proof of Poincaré-Bendixon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10.7 The van der Pol and Lienard equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.7.1 The van der Pol equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.7.2 The Lienard equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.7.3 Proofs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.7.4 Relaxation oscillations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

11 Lotka - Volterra. 219

11.1 The original Lotka - Volterra equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.1.1 The null-clines and the zeros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.1.2 Volterra’s explanation of why fishing decreases the num-
ber of predators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.2 A more realistic model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.3 Competition between species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.4 The n-dimensional Lotka-Volterra equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
11.4.1 A theorem of Liapounov. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
CONTENTS 7

11.4.2 Food chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

11.5 Replicator dynamics and evolutionary stable strategies. . . . . . 234
11.5.1 The replicator equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.5.2 Linear fitness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
11.5.3 Hofbauer’s equivalence theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
11.5.4 Nash equilibria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
11.6 Evolutionary stable states. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
11.7 Entropy and communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.7.1 Codes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
11.7.2 Uniquely decipherable codes and instantaneous codes. . . 239
11.7.3 The expected length of a code. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
11.7.4 Shannon’s “first theorem”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

12 Symbolic dynamics. 245

12.1 Sequence spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
12.1.1 Exclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
12.1.2 Shifts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
12.1.3 Homomorphisms between shifts are sliding block codes. . 247
12.2 Shifts of finite type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
12.2.1 One step shifts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12.3 Directed multigraphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12.3.1 The adjacency matrix of a directed multigraph. . . . . . 250
12.3.2 The number of fixed points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.3.3 The zeta function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
12.4 Topological entropy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
12.5 Factors of finite shifts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
12.6 The Henon map and symbolic dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Iteration and fixed points.

1.1 Square roots.

Perhaps the oldest algorithm in recorded history is the Babylonian algorithm
(circa 2000BCE) for computing square roots: If we want to find the square root
of a positive number a we start with some approximation, x0 > 0 and then
recursively define  
1 a
xn+1 = xn + . (1.1)
2 xn
This is a very effective algorithm which converges extremely rapidly.
Here is an illustration. Suppose we want to find the square root of 2 and
start with the really stupid approximation x0 = 99. We get:
99.00000000000000
49.51010101010101
24.77524840365297
12.42798706655775
6.29445708659966
3.30609848017316
1.95552056875300
1.48913306969968
1.41609819333465
1.41421481646475
1.41421356237365
1.41421356237309
1.41421356237309

1.1.1 Analyzing the steps.

For the first seven steps we are approximately dividing by two in passing from
one step to the next, also (approximately) cutting the error - the deviation from
the true value - in half.

9
10 CHAPTER 1. ITERATION AND FIXED POINTS.

After line eight the accuracy improves dramatically: the ninth value, 1.416 . . .
is correct to two decimal places. The tenth value is correct to five decimal places,
and the eleventh value is correct to eleven decimal places.
To see why this algorithm works so well (for general a > 0), first observe
that the algorithm is well defined, in that we are steadily taking the average of
positive quantities, and hence, by induction, xn > 0 for all n. Introduce the
relative error in the n−th approximation:
√
xn − a
en := √
a
so √
xn = (1 + en ) a.
As xn > 0, it follows that
en > −1.
Then
√ 1 1 √ 1 e2n
xn+1 = a (1 + en + ) = a(1 + ).
2 1 + en 2 1 + en
This gives us a recursion formula for the relative error:
e2n
en+1 = . (1.2)
2 + 2en
This implies that en+1 > 0 so after the first step we are always overshooting the
mark. Now 2en < 2 + 2en for n ≥ 1 so (1.2) implies that
1
en+1 < en
2
so the error is cut in half (at least) at each stage after the first, and hence, in
particular,
x1 > x2 > · · · ,
the iterates are steadily decreasing.
Eventually we will reach the stage that
en < 1.
From this point on, we use the inequality 2 + 2en > 2 in (1.2) and we get the
estimate
1
en+1 < e2n . (1.3)
2
So if we renumber our approximation so that 0 ≤ e0 < 1 then (ignoring the 1/2
factor in (1.3)) we have n
0 ≤ en < e20 , (1.4)
an exponential rate of convergence.
If we had started with an x0 < 0 then√ all the iterates would be < 0 and we
would get exponential convergence to − a. Of course, had we been so foolish
as to pick x0 = 0 we could not get the iteration started.
1.2. NEWTON’S METHOD. 11

1.2 Newton’s method.

This is a generalization of the above algorithm to find the zeros of a function
P = P (x) and which reduces to (1.1) when P (x) = x2 − a. It is

P (xn )
xn+1 = xn − . (1.5)
P 0 (xn )

If we take P (x) = x2 − a then P 0 (x) = 2x the expression on the right in (1.5)

is
 
1 a
xn +
2 xn

so (1.5) reduces to (1.1).

Here is a graphic illustration of Newton’s method applied to the function

y = x3 − x with the initial point 2. Notice that what we are doing is taking
the tangent to the curve at the point (x, y) and then taking as our next point,
the intersection of this tangent with the x-axis. This makes the method easy to
remember.

T
Caveat: In the general case we can not expect that “most” points will converge
to a zero of P as was the case in the square root algorithm. After all, P might
not have any zeros. Nevertheless, we will show in this section that if we are
“close enough” to a zero - that P (x0 ) is “sufficiently small” in a sense to be
made precise - then (1.5) converges exponentially fast to a zero.
12 CHAPTER 1. ITERATION AND FIXED POINTS.

1.2.1 A fixed point of the iteration scheme is a solution to

our problem.
Notice that if x is a “fixed point” of this iteration scheme, i.e. if
P (x)
x=x−
P 0 (x)
then P (x) = 0 and we have a solution to our problem. To the extent that xn+1
is “close to” xn we will be close to a solution (the degree of closeness depending
on the size of P (xn )).

1.2.2 The guts of the method.

Before embarking on the formal proof, let us describe what is going on, on the
assumption that we know the existence of a zero - say by graphically plotting
the function. So let z be a zero for the function f of a real variable, and let x
be a point in the interval (z − µ, z + µ) of radius µ about z. Then
Z z
−f (x) = f (z) − f (x) = f 0 (s)ds
x

so Z z
−f (x) − (z − x)f 0 (x) = (f 0 (s) − f 0 (x))ds.
x
Assuming f 0 (x) 6= 0 we may divide both sides by f 0 (x) to obtain
  Z z
f (x) 1
x− 0 −z = 0 (f 0 (s) − f 0 (x))ds. (1.6)
f (x) f (x) x

Assume that for all y ∈ (z − µ, z + µ) we have

|f 0 (y)| ≥ ρ>0 (1.7)

0 0
|f (y1 ) − f (y2 )| ≤ δ|y1 − y2 | (1.8)
µ ≤ ρ/δ. (1.9)

Then setting x = xold in (1.6) and letting

f (x)
xnew := x −
f 0 (x)
in (1.6) we obtain
Z z
δ δ
|xnew − z| ≤ |s − xold |ds = |xold − z|2 .
ρ xold 2ρ

Since |xold − z| < µ it follows that

1
|xnew − z| ≤ µ
2
1.2. NEWTON’S METHOD. 13

by (1.9). Thus the iteration

f (x)
x 7→ x − (1.10)
f 0 (x)

is well defined. At each stage it more than halves the distance to the zero and
has the quadratic convergence property

δ
|xnew − z| ≤ |xold − z|2 .
2ρ

The above argument was posited on the assumption that there is a zero z of f
and that certain additional hypotheses were satisfied. But f might not have any
zeros. Even if it does, unless some such stringent hypotheses are satisfied, there
is no guarantee that the process will converge to the nearest root, or converge
at all. Furthermore, encoding a computation for f 0 (x) may be difficult. In
practice, one replaces f 0 by an approximation, and only allows Newton’s method
to proceed if in fact it does not take us out of the interval. We will return to
these points, but first rephrase the above argument in terms of a vector variable.

1.2.3 A vector version.

Now let f a function of a vector variable, with a zero at z and x a point in the
ball of radius µ centered at z. Let vx := z − x and consider the function

t :7→ f (x + tvx )

which takes the value f (z) when t = 1 and the value f (x) when t = 0. Differ-
entiating with respect to t using the chain rule gives f 0 (x + tvx )vx (where f 0
denotes the derivative =(the Jacobian matrix) of f . Hence
Z 1
−f (x) = f (z) − f (x) = f 0 (x + tvx )vx dt.
0

This gives
Z 1
−f (x) − f 0 (x)vx = −f (x) − f 0 (x)(z − x) = [f 0 (x + tvx ) − f 0 (x)]vx dt.
0

Applying [f 0 (x)]−1 (which we assume to exist) gives the analogue of (1.6):

Z 1
0 −1
f (x) − z = [f 0 (x)]−1 [f 0 (x + tvx ) − f 0 (x)]vx dt.


x − [f (x)]
0

Assume that k[f 0 (y)]−1 k ≤ ρ−1 (1.11)

0 0
kf (y1 ) − f (y2 )k ≤ δky1 − y2 k (1.12)
14 CHAPTER 1. ITERATION AND FIXED POINTS.

for all y, y1 , y2 in the ball of radius µ about z, and assume also that µ ≤ ρ/δ
holds. Setting xold = x and

xnew := xold − [f 0 (xold )]−1 f (xold )

gives
Z 1
δ δ
kxnew − zk ≤ tkvx kkvx kdt = kxold − zk2 .
ρ 0 2ρ
From here on we can argue as in the one dimensional case.

1.2.4 Problems with the implementation of Newton’s method.

We return to the one dimensional case.
In numerical practice we have to deal with two problems: it may not be easy
to encode the derivative, and we may not be able to tell in advance whether the
conditions for Newton’s method to work are indeed fulfilled.
In case f is a polynomial, MATLAB has an efficient command “polyder” for
computing the derivative of f . Otherwise we replace the derivative by the slope
of the secant, which requires the input of two initial values, call them x− and
xc and replaces the derivative in Newton’s method by

0 f (xc ) − f (x− )
fapp (xc ) = .
xc − x−

0 f (xc ) − f (x− )
fapp (xc ) = .
xc − x−
So at each stage of the Newton iteration we carry along two values of x, the
“current value” denoted say by “xc” and the “old value” denoted by “x− ”. We
also carry along two values of f , the value of f at xc denoted by fc and the value
of f at x− denoted by f− . So the Newton iteration will look like

fpc=(fc-f− )/(xc-x− );
xnew=xc-fc/fpc;
x− -=xc; f− =fc;
xc=xnew; fc=feval(fname,xc);
In the last line, the command feval is the MATLAB evaluation of a function
command: if fname is a “script” (that is an expression enclosed in ‘ ‘) giving
the name of a function, then feval(fname,x) evaluates the function at the point
x.

The second issue - that of deciding whether Newton’s method should be used
at all - is handled as follows: If the zero in question is a critical point, so that
f 0 (z) = 0, there is no chance of Newton’s method working. So let us assume
that f 0 (z) 6= 0, which means that f changes sign at z, a fact that we can verify
by looking at the graph of f . So assume that we have found an interval [a, b]
1.2. NEWTON’S METHOD. 15

containing the zero we are looking for, and such that f takes on opposite signs
at the end-points:
f (a)f (b) < 0.
A sure but slow method of narrowing in on a zero of f contained in this interval
is the “bisection method”: evaluate f at the midpoint 21 (a + b). If this value
has a sign opposite to that of f (a) replace b by 21 (a + b). Otherwise replace a
by 12 (a + b). This produces an interval of half the length of [a, b] containing a
zero.
The idea now is to check at each stage whether Newton’s method leaves us
in the interval, in which case we apply it, or else we apply the bisection method.
We now turn to the more difficult existence problem.

1.2.5 The existence theorem.

For the purposes of the proof, in order to simplify the notation, let us assume
that we have “shifted our coordinates” so as to take x0 = 0. Also let

B = {x : |x| ≤ 1}.

We need to assume that P 0 (x) is nowhere zero, and that P 00 (x) is bounded. In
fact, we assume that there is a constant K such that

|P 0 (x)−1 | ≤ K, |P 00 (x)| ≤ K, ∀x ∈ B. (1.13)

3
Proposition 1.2.1. Let τ = 2 and choose the K in (1.13) so that K ≥ 23/4 .
Let
8
c= ln K.
3
Then if
|P (0)| ≤ K −5 (1.14)
the recursion (1.5) starting with x0 = 0 satisfies

xn ∈ B ∀n (1.15)

and n
|xn − xn−1 | ≤ e−cτ . (1.16)
In particular, the sequence {xn } converges to a zero of P .
We will prove a somewhat more general result: We will let τ be any real
number satisfying
1<τ <2
and we will choose c in terms of K and τ to make the proof work. First of all
we notice that (1.15) is a consequence of (1.16) if c is sufficiently large. In fact,

xj = (xj − xj−1 ) + · · · + (x1 − x0 )

16 CHAPTER 1. ITERATION AND FIXED POINTS.

so
|xj | ≤ |xj − xj−1 | + · · · + |x1 − x0 |.
Using (1.16) for each term on the right gives
j ∞ ∞
X n X n X e−c(τ −1)
|xj | ≤ e−cτ < e−cτ < e−cn(τ −1) = .
1 1 1
1 − e−c(τ −1)

Here the third inequality follows from writing τ = 1+(τ −1) so by the binomial
formula
τ n = 1 + n(τ − 1) + · · · > n(τ − 1)
since τ > 1. The equality is obtained by summing the geometric series.
We have shown that
e−c(τ −1)
|xj | ≤ .
1 − e−c(τ −1)
So if we choose c sufficiently large that

e−c(τ −1)
≤ 1, (1.17)
1 − e−c(τ −1)

then (1.15) follows from (1.16).

This choice of c is conditioned by our choice of τ . But at least we now know
that if we can arrange that (1.16) holds, then by choosing a possibly larger value
of c (so that (1.16) continues to hold) we can guarantee that the algorithm keeps
going.
So let us try to prove (1.16) by induction. If we assume it is true for n, we
may write
|xn+1 − xn | = |Sn P (xn )|
where we set
Sn = P 0 (xn )−1 . (1.18)
We use the first inequality in (1.13) which says that

|P 0 (x)−1 | ≤ K,

and the definition (1.5) for the case n − 1 (which says that xn = xn−1 −
Sn−1 P (xn−1 )) to get

|Sn P (xn )| ≤ K|P (xn−1 − Sn−1 P (xn−1 ))|. (1.19)

Taylor’s formula with remainder says that for any twice continuously differen-
tiable function f ,

1
f (y + h) = f (y) + f 0 (y)h + R(y, h) where |R(y, h)| ≤ sup |f 00 (z)|h2
2 z
1.2. NEWTON’S METHOD. 17

where the supremum is taken over the interval between y and y + h. If we use
Taylor’s formula with remainder with

f = P, y = P (xn−1 ), and − h = Sn−1 P (xn−1 ) = xn − xn−1

and the second inequality in (1.13) to estimate the second derivative, we obtain

|P (xn−1 − Sn−1 P (xn−1 ))|

≤ |P (xn−1 ) − P 0 (xn−1 )Sn−1 P (xn−1 )| + K|xn − xn−1 |2 .

Substituting this inequality into (1.19), we get

|xn+1 − xn | ≤ K|P (xn−1 ) − P 0 (xn−1 )Sn−1 P (xn−1 )| + K 2 |xn − xn−1 |2 . (1.20)

Now since Sn−1 = P 0 (xn−1 )−1 the first term on the right vanishes and we get
n
|xn+1 − xn | ≤ K 2 |xn − xn−1 |2 ≤ K 2 e−2cτ .

Choosing c so that the induction works.

So in order to pass from n to n + 1 in (1.16) we must have
n n+1
K 2 e−2cτ ≤ e−cτ

or n
K 2 ≤ ec(2−τ )τ . (1.21)
Since 1 < τ < 2 we can arrange for this last inequality to hold for n = 1 and
hence for all n if we choose c sufficiently large.

Getting started.
To get started, we must verify (1.16) for n = 1 This says

S0 P (0) ≤ e−cτ

or
e−cτ
|P (0)| ≤ . (1.22)
K
So we have proved:
Theorem 1.2.1. Suppose that (1.13) holds and we have chosen K and c so
that (1.17) and (1.21) hold. Then if P (0) satisfies (1.22) the Newton iteration
scheme converges exponentially to a zero of P in the sense that (1.16) holds.
If we choose τ = 32 as in the proposition, let c be given by K 2 = e3c/4 so
that (1.21) just holds. This is our choice in the proposition. The inequality
K ≥ 23/4 implies that e3c/4 ≥ 43/4 or

ec ≥ 4.
18 CHAPTER 1. ITERATION AND FIXED POINTS.

This implies that

1
e−c/2 ≤
2
so (1.17) holds. Then
e−cτ = e−3c/2 = K −4
so (1.22) becomes |P (0)| ≤ K −5 completing the proof of the proposition.

1.2.6 Review.
We have put in all the gory details, but it is worth reviewing the argument, and
seeing how things differ from the special case of finding the square root. Our
algorithm is
xn+1 = xn − Sn [P (xn )] (1.23)
where Sn is chosen as (1.18). Taylor’s formula gave (1.20) and with the choice
(1.18) we get
|xn+1 − xn | ≤ K 2 |xn − xn−1 |2 . (1.24)
In contrast to (1.4) we do not know that K ≤ 1 so, once we get going, we can’t
quite conclude that the error vanishes as
n
rτ , 0<r<1

with τ = 2. But we can arrange that we eventually have such exponential

convergence with any τ < 2.

1.2.7 Basins of attraction.

The more decisive difference has to do with the “basins of attraction” of the
solutions. For the square root, starting with any positive number ends us up
with the positive square root. This was the effect of the en+1 < 21 en argument
which eventually gets us to the region where the exponential convergence takes
over. Every negative number leads us to the negative square root. So the “basin
of attraction” of the positive square root is the entire positive half axis, and the
“basin of attraction” of the negative square root is the entire negative half axis.
The only “bad” point belonging to no basin of attraction is the point 0.
Even for cubic polynomials the global behavior of Newton’s method is ex-
traordinarily complicated. For example, consider the polynomial

P (x) = x3 − x,

with roots at 0 and ±1. We have

P (x) x3 − x 2x3
x− 0
=x− 2 = 2
P (x) 3x − 1 3x − 1
1.2. NEWTON’S METHOD. 19

so Newton’s method in this case says to set

2x3n
xn+1 = . (1.25)
3x2n − 1

There are obvious “bad” points where we can’t get started,

p due to the vanishing
of the denominator, P 0 (x). These are the points x = ± 1/3. These two points
are the analogues of the point 0 in the square root algorithm.
We know from the general theory, that any point sufficiently close to 1 will
converge to 1 under Newton’s method and similarly for the other two roots, 0
and -1.

If x > 1, then 2x3 > 3x2 − 1 since both sides agree at x = 1 and the left
side is increasing faster, as its derivative is 6x2 while the derivative of the right
hand side is only 6x. This implies that if we start to the right of x = 1 we will
stay to the right. The same argument shows that

2x3 < 3x3 − x

for x > 1. This is the same as

2x3
< x,
3x2 − 1

which implies that if we start with x0 > 1 we have x0 > x1 > x2 > · · · and
eventually we will reach the region where the exponential convergence takes
over. So every point to the right of x = 1 is in the basin of attraction of the
root x = 1. By symmetry, every point to the left of x = −1 will converge to −1.

But let us examine what happens in the interval −1 < x0 < 1. For example,
suppose we start with x0 = − 21 . Then one application of Newton’s method
gives
−.25
x1 = = 1.
3 × .25 − 1

In other words, one application of Newton’s method lands us on the root x = 1,

right on the nose. Notice that although −.5 is halfway between the roots −1
and 0, we land on the farther root x = 1. In fact, by continuity, if we start with
x0 close to −.5, then x1 must be close to 1. So all points, x0 , sufficiently close
to −.5 will have x1 in the region where exponential convergence to x = 1 takes
over. In other words, the basin of attraction of x = 1 will include points to the
immediate left of −.5, even though −1 is the closest root.

Here are the results of applying Newton’s method to the three close points
20 CHAPTER 1. ITERATION AND FIXED POINTS.

0.4472 , 0.4475 and 0.4480 with ten iterations:

0.4472 0.4475 0.4480
−0.4471 −0.4489 −0.4520
0.4467 0.4577 0.4769
−0.4443 −0.5162 −0.6827
0.4301 1.3699 −1.5980
−0.3576 1.1105 −1.2253
0.1483 1.0146 −1.0500
−0.0070 1.0003 −1.0034
0.0000 1.0000 −1.0000
−0.0000 1.0000 −1.0000
0.0000 1.0000 −1.0000

Periodic points.
Suppose we have a point x which satisfies

2x3
= −x.
3x2 − 1
So one application of Newton’s method lands us at −x, and a second lands us
back at x. The above equation is the same as
0 = 5x3 − x = x(5x2 − 1)
p p
which has roots, x = 0, ± 1/5. So the points ± 1/5 form a cycle of order two:
Newton’s method cycles between these two points and hence does not converge
to any root. In fact, in the interval (−1, 1) there are infinitely many points that
don’t converge to any root. We will return to a description of this complicated
type of phenomenon later.

1.2.8 Cayley’s complex version

If we apply Newton’s method to cubic or higher degree polynomials and to com-
plex numbers instead of real numbers, the results are even more spectacular.
This phenomenon was first discovered by Cayley, and was published in a short
article which appeared in the second issue of the American Journal of Mathe-
matics in 1879. After describing Newton’s method, Cayley writes, concerning a
polynomial with roots A,B,C... in the complex plane:
The problem is to determine the regions of the plane such that P,
taken at pleasure anywhere within one region, we arrive ultimately
at the point A, anywhere within another region we arrive at the
point B, and so for the several points representing the root of the
equation.
The solution is easy and elegant for the case of a quadric equation;
but the next succeeding case of a cubic equation appears to present
considerable difficulty.
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