A Project report

On

“UTILIZATION OF WASTE TYRES IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION”

A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the academic
requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In
Civil Engineering
By
BACHUWAR VASAVI 23QA5A0103

AMBALA SHIVAMANI 22QA1A0101

VANKADOTH MAMATHA 23QA5A0116

M JAYARAM 23QA5A0110
Under the esteemed guidance of

M. SARITHA
(Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

BRILLIANT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated To JNT University, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
ABDULLAPUR (V), HAYATHNAGAR (M), RANGA REDDY (D)-501505

2024 – 2025

1
 BRILLIANT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
ABDULLAPUR (V), HAYATHNAGAR (M), RANGA REDDY (D)

Department of Civil Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “ UTILIZATION OF WASTE TYRES IN
ROAD CONSTRUCTION”, being submitted by BACHUWAR VASAVI – 23QA5A0103, AMBALA
SHIVAMANI – 22QA1A0101, VANKUDOTH MAMATHA – 23QA5A0116, M JAYARAM - 23QA5A0110 in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil
Engineering, , in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Bachelor Of Technology
Degree in Civil Engineering at JNTU Hyderabad is an authentic work carried out by them under my
personal supervision and guidance. To the best of my knowledge the matter embodied in this project
review report has not been submitted in any college/institute for awarding degree or diploma.

M. SARITHA B S RAKESH KUMAR REDDY

Internal Guide HOD, Dept. of CIVIL

Asst. Professor Asst. professor

Dr. Shaik Rusthum

EXTERNAL EXAMINER PRINCIPAL
Professor

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 BRILLIANT INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated To JNT University, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi)
ABDULLAPUR (V), HAYATHNAGAR (M), RANGA REDDY (D)-501505

Department of Civil Engineering

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the Report of the Project Work entitled “UTILIZATION
OF WASTE TYRES IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION” which is being submitted to the Brilliant
Institute of Engineering & Technology, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering Department of Civil
Engineering, is a bonafide work carried out by us. The material contained in this Report has
not been submitted to any University or Institution for the award of any degree.

By:

BACHUWAR VASAVI 23QA5A0103

V MAMATHA 23QA5A0116

A SHIVAMANI 22QA1A0101

M JAYARAM 23QA5A0110

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We have immense pleasure in expressing our thanks and deep sense of

gratitude to our Head of the Department .B S RAKESH KUMAR REDDY
(Department of Civil Engineering, BRIL), for his valuable suggestions and unflinching
cooperation throughout course of the project work.

We also thank our principal Dr. SHAIK RUSTHUM, of “BRILLIANT

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY” for permitting this training.

We express our sincere gratitude to M. SARITHA, Project Guide for supporting

us and spending his valuable time in completing this project work.

We also thank all teaching and non- teaching staff of Dept. of Civil Engineering
for their direct or indirect co-operation and encouragement.

Finally we express our sincere gratitude to all the members of faculty and our
friends who contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the project work
successfully.

By:

BACHUWAR VASAVI 23QA5A0103

V MAMATHA 23QA5A0116

A SHIVAMANI 22QA1A0101

M JAYARAM 23QA5A0110

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 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General 1

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the Work 25

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Earlier Studies Carried on Industrial Wastes 26

2.2 Summery 31

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 General 32

3.2 Materials 33

3.3 Laboratory Testing Procedures of Conventional Materials and

Industrial Wastes

3.4 Cost Effective Methods Employed in Pavement Construction 39

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 General 43

4.2 Sub-Grade 43

CHAPTER 5: SUMMERY AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Conclusions 56

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 - Classification of Road Network 5

Table 1.2 - CBR Variation Ranges as per IRC 37-2001 14

Table 1.3 - Grading for Close Graded Granular Sub-base Materials 15

Table 1.4 - Grading for Coarse Graded Granular Sub-base Material 16

Table 1.5 - Requirements of Aggregate for Use in the Pavement Layers (MoRT&H, 2001) 16

Table 1.6 - Requirements of Gradation and PI 17

Table 1.7 - Physical Requirements of Coarse Aggregates for SDBC (MoRT&H) 18

Table 1.8 - Aggregate Size of SDBC Pavement Layers (MoRT&H) 19

Table 1.9 - Properties of Bitumen (MoRT&H) 19

Table 1.10 - Marshall Mix Design Criteria for SDBC Pavement Layers (MoRT&H) 20

Table 1.11 - Crusher Dust Production Details of Andhra Pradesh State 22

Table 1.12 - Crusher Dust Production Details of Telangana State 23

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 - Components of Pavements 6

Figure 3.1 - Methodology Flow Chart (inferred) 32

Figure 3.3 - Sieve Shaker with Set of IS Sieves 34

Figure 3.4 - Compaction Moulds Along with Rammers 35

Figure 3.5 - CBR Apparatus 36

Figure 3.10 - Crusher Dust Sample 40

Figure 3.11 - GGWT Sample 41

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

 CD - Crusher Dust
 GGWT - Ground Granulated Waste Tyre
 CRWT - Crumb Rubber Waste Tyre
 PE - Polyethylene
 SBS - Styrene Butadiene Styrene
 CBR - California Bearing Ratio
 MoRT&H - Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
 IS - Indian Standard
 WBM - Water Bound Macadam
 SDBC - Semi-Dense Bituminous Concrete
 MDD - Maximum Dry Density
 OMC - Optimum Moisture Content
 BC - Bituminous Concrete
 BM - Bituminous Macadam
 DBM - Dense Bituminous Macadam
 PI - Plasticity Index
 VMA - Voids in Mineral Aggregate
 VFB - Voids Filled with Bitumen
 msa - Million Standard Axles

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 ABSTRACT

To reduce the cost of a project, engineers readily go with locally available natural soils.
Many of these soils fail to perform their function of stress transfer without causing any
distress to the underlying layers. To reduce the thrust on natural soils, to eliminate the
deleterious effects due to the plastic fines (clays) and to maintain strength under wet
conditions, alternative materials are to be identified. Crusher dust (CD) is an industrial waste
(residue) obtained from stone crushing industry is used as sub-grade material. Ground
granulated waste tyre (GGWT) of sizes less than 4.75mm, crumb rubber waste tyre (CRWT)
of sizes 10, 20 and 30mm from used tyres of motor vehicle industry have been mixed with
crushed stone (75mm-4.75mm) and crusher dust as sub-base, base course materials.
Polyethylene (PE) and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) polymers in granulated form are used
as surface course materials.

To study the crusher dust as a sub-grade material, it was characterized into three sizes
(ranges) i.e coarse sand range (4.75mm-2mm), medium sand range (2mm-0.425mm) and
fine sand range (0.425mm-0.075mm) and these were graded into different mixes with
respect to their percentages. From the test results it is identified that mixes dominated by a
single size have attained CBR in the range of 8-11%, with two sizes CBR in the range of 10-
10.5%. The mixes with three sizes have percentages from 30-40% have attained CBR in the
range of 13-15%.

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 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
Advanced technology driven developed and developing countries of the twenty first
century achieved more vibrant economy and they are compelled to witness massive
increase in their industrial, transportation and infrastructural sector operations. Hence
most of the nations took a paradigm shift in their administrative policies by allocating
ample funds and adopting cutting edge construction technologies to expand the
existing flexible pavement road network. As the road transportation network provides
accessibility and connectivity to all corners of the country, majority of the population
relies on road transportation.

India has a road network of 4689842 kilometers (2,914,133 mi) in the year 2013, the
second largest road network in the world. India has 0.66 km of roads per every square
kilometer of land, the quantitative density of India’s road network is similar to that of
the United States (0.65) and far higher than that of China (0.16) or Brazil (0.20).
Adjusted for its large population, India has less than 4 kilometers of roads per 1000
people, including all its paved and unpaved roads. United States has 21 kilometers of
roads per 1000 people, while France has about 15 kilometers per 1000 people-
predominantly paved and high quality in both cases. As on April 2015, India had
completed and placed in use over 24,000 kilometers of recently built four or six lane
highways connecting many of its major manufacturing centers, commercial and
cultural centers. India road building rate has accelerated in recent years and averaged
about 11 kilometers per day in second half of the year 2011. (Ref: Wikipedia)

Soil, aggregate (stones) and bitumen are the most abundantly available natural
materials in the universe and they are the major conventional construction materials
used by modern man right from the dawn of civilization in many of the civil
engineering construction activities such as highways, buildings and irrigation projects.
As the time progressed, the usage of these materials have become more rampant
directly or indirectly in civil engineering constructions particularly in highway and
airfield pavements. Soils are directly used, as basement fill material, embankment

1
construction material and also as a fill material in construction of reinforced soil
structures. Aggregates are used along with binding materials like soil and bitumen at
the sub-base, base and surface course including wearing course subjected to the
fulfillment of gradation and respective standard requirements of code as followed by
various countries for better movement of traffic flow on the pavement.

Civil engineering structures for their construction requires enormous quantities of

conventional materials. The ever increasing demand due to rapid growth in
construction activities has resulted in extreme scarcity of these conventional
construction materials in urban areas as well as rural areas and there by the
construction costs has increased significantly. Hence the civil engineering
construction fraternity is on the threshold of identifying suitable alternative materials
for substituting the paucity of conventional construction materials.

A pavement is a relatively stable structure constructed over the natural soil with a
series of component layers for the purpose of supporting and distributing wheel loads
in an uniform manner along with the provision of an adequate wearing course which
enables smooth traffic maneuvers. These pavement components are damaged at a
relatively shorter period of time due to change in the soil, aggregate and bitumen
properties coupled with the repeated application of wheel loads which may result in
excessive deformation, leading to "superfluous" settlements. These include increase
and decrease of water content in the problematic soils, defects in the aggregate in the
form of stripping, abrasion and attrition changes, problems in the form of ageing,
brittleness and volatile variations of index and engineering properties in the bitumen.
This further causes deterioration of the pavement and compels renovation process at a
much higher cost year by year.

Generally pavements are of two types namely flexible pavements and rigid
pavements. The flexible pavement consists of four components namely sub-grade,
sub-base course, base course and surface course. Naturally the materials used for the
construction of above mentioned components include soil, aggregate and bitumen.

Pavement distress can be considered as complex in nature and several factors may
contribute to the pavement deterioration and ultimate failure. Classical flexible
pavement failures are formation of potholes, ruts, cracks, localized depressions and
settlements. The sub-grade generally fails due to inadequate stability, excessive stress

2
application. The sub-base or base course fails due to inadequate stability, loss of
binding action, loss of base course materials, inadequate wearing course, use of
inferior materials etc. Failure of surface course is due to lack of appropriate mix
design, i.e. improper gradation of aggregates, inadequate binder content and inferior
type of binder resulting in a poor bituminous surfacing.

Commonly used conventional materials for the construction of road pavements are
fast depleting and this has led to an increase in the cost of pavement construction.
Hence the search for new alternative materials with improved techniques to process
the local materials has received an enhanced impetus across the globe. When poor
quality of soil, aggregate and bitumen is available at the construction site, the best
option is to modify the properties of the probable defective material by blending it
with additives or modifiers so that it meets the desired pavement design requirements.

Rapid industrialization has taken place in a remarkable fashion in India's urban and
rural areas. This has resulted in overall boon to the society in many folds, however
production of waste material on large scale and disposal of the same have become a
major bane. Safe and economic disposal of these industrial wastes by suitable and
convenient means is necessary for sustainable growth. The generation of non
decaying waste materials, combined with a growing consumer population, has
resulted in a waste disposal crisis. These wastes, if not disposed properly may
contaminate the soil/earth as well as ground water sooner or later. The properties and
behavior of soils, may get altered by contamination of industrial wastes. These
changes in soil properties and their behavior may be favorable or unfavorable
depending upon the prevailing site conditions. Intentional and controlled modification
of soil by industrial wastes can be explored and used for bringing about desired
changes in strength, compaction and volumetric change characteristics. This serves
the disposal purpose of industrial wastes as well as altering soil properties favorably
as required. Similar kinds of alterations can be done to supplement the probable
deficiencies identified for the other two materials i.e. aggregate and bitumen
depending upon their lacking material characteristics.

Conventional materials are being used in construction as these materials have certain
characteristics which make them suitable for various applications directly and
indirectly. Thus quality of construction material plays a major role in construction

3
activities to develop world class infrastructures with cutting edge technologies. Most
of the developed and developing countries in the world are bound to receive huge
quantities of industrial waste materials released from their primary industrial sector
activities and operations. These wastes are causing disposal problems both financially
and environmentally. Various researchers advocated from their study that, the best
method to alleviate the waste disposal problem is by utilizing them in civil
engineering construction activities particularly which require soil/aggregate/bitumen
as prime construction material.

As per the successive road development plans, the government of India requires
enormous quantity of conventional construction materials for linking of all kinds of
roads. On the other hand, scarcity of soil/aggregates/bitumen is also felt gravely in the
construction of roads and their strengthening.

1.1.1 INDIAN ROAD NETWORK

India has a road network of 4689842 kilometers (2,914,133 mi) in the year 2013.
India has 0.66 km of roads per every square kilometer of land. Adjusted for its large
population, India has less than 4 kilometers of roads per 1000 people, including all its
paved and unpaved roads. As on April 2015, India had completed and placed in use
over 24,000 kilometers of recently built four or six lane highways connecting many of
its major manufacturing centres, commercial and cultural centres. India road building
rate has accelerated in recent years and averaged about 11 kilometers per day in
second half of the year 2011. (Ref: Wikipedia)

1.1.1.1 ROAD NETWORK OVERVIEW

Road transport is vital to India's economy and it contributes around 4.7 percent of
India's gross domestic product. Road transport has gained importance over the years.
Indian road network carries over 65 percent of its freight and about 85 percent of
passenger traffic. Various government authorities administer Indian road network,
given India’s federal structure of government setup. The classification of road
network is as shown in Table 1.1.

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 Table 1.1 Classification of road network

Total kilometers
Road classification Authority responsible
(as of 2011)

Ministry of Road transport & 70,934 plus 40,000

National highways highways (Central government of kilometers under
India) implementation
Respective state governments
State highways 1,54,522
(state’s public works department)
Local governments, panchayats
Major and other district roads 25,77,396
and municipalities
Local governments, panchayats
Rural roads 14,33,577
and municipalities

1.1.2 PAVEMENTS

Pavement is a structure which is constructed over a natural soil for the distribution of
wheel loads acting on the wearing surface. The pavement carries the wheel loads and
transfer the load stresses through a wider area on the soil sub-grade below. Thus the
stresses transferred to the sub-grade soil through the pavement layers are considerably
lower than the contact pressure or compressive stresses under the wheel load on the
pavement surface. The reduction in the wheel load stresses due to the pavement
depends both on its thickness and geotechnical characteristics of the pavement layers.

1.1.2.1 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

Based on mode of supporting and distributing wheel loads, pavements are generally
classified under the following categories.

1. flexible pavements
2. rigid pavements
3. semi-rigid pavements

1.1.2.1.1 flexible pavements

The flexible pavements consists of a relatively thin wearing surface course built over
a base course and sub-base course and the rest on compacted sub-grade.

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The design of the flexible pavement is based on the principle that the surface load is
transferred through successive layers of granular material over sub-grade. The
component layers of the flexible pavement are as shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Components of Pavements

In addition to this the flexible pavements are commonly designed using empirical
design charts or equations taking into account some of the design factors. There are
also semi-empirical and theoretical design methods.

The thickness of the flexible pavement mainly depends on the strength of the sub-
grade as the performance of the pavement depends on the strength and specifications
of the component layers.

1.1.2.1.2 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements are made up of Portland cement concrete (PCC) as surface course
and may or may not have the base/sub-base course between the surface course and
sub-grade. The components of the rigid pavement are as shown in Fig. 1.1. The main
function of rigid pavement in the surface course is to take appreciable tensile stresses
and to reduce impact (over stresses) on sub-grade layer. These are used for heavier
loads and for relatively poor sub-grades such as black-cotton soils, peaty-organic,
compressible soils.

These are commonly designed, based on the principle that the surface load is taken by
the bending action of the slab and acts as uniform sub-grade support to distribute load
over a relatively wide area of the soil mass. The surface course(slabs) are either plain
cement concrete, reinforced cement concrete or pre-stressed cement concrete. The
PCC slab is expected to take a flexural stress of 40 kg/cm2.

6
The cement concrete pavement slab can also very well serve as an effective base
course. Therefore usually the rigid pavement structure consists of a cement concrete
slab below which a granular base or sub-base course may be provided as shown in the
above Fig. 1.1. Sometimes the cement concrete slab cannot be laid directly over the
soil sub-grade particularly when the sub-grade consists of fine grained soil. Providing
a good base or sub-base course layer under the cement concrete slab, increases the
pavement life considerably.

1.1.3 STRUCTURE AND COMPONENT LAYERS OF FLEXIBLE

PAVEMENTS

The chief function of the flexible pavement is to transmit vertical or compressive

stresses to the lower layers by grain to grain transfer to their point of contact in the
granular structure. A well compacted granular structure as shown in the above Fig. 1.1
consists of a wearing course at the top, below this a base course followed by the sub-
base course and the lowest or bottom layer is sub-grade which is the weakest among
the four typical flexible component layers. The bottom most layer may be a
compacted natural ground or an artificially prepared ground on which these
component pavement layers are to be laid with different materials of known
specifications.

Based on the principle of stress distribution characteristics of flexible pavements

vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface directly under the
wheel load and is equal to the contact pressure under/below the wheel and these
stresses get decreased at the lower layers.

1.1.4 FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT COMPONENTS

1.1.4.1 Soil sub-grade and its evaluation

Usually the sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of
pavement materials placed over it. The loads on the pavement are ultimately received
by the soil sub-grade for dispersion to the earth mass. It is essential that the soil sub-
grade should not be overstressed. It means that the pressure transmitted on the top of
the sub-grade should be within the allowable limit, not to cause excessive stress
condition or to deform the same beyond the elastic limit. Therefore it is desirable that
at least top 50 cm layer of the sub-grade soil is well compacted under controlled
conditions of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. It is necessary to

7
evaluate the strength properties of the soil sub-grade. Many tests are known for
measuring the strength properties of the sub-grades. Some of the tests have been
standardized for the use.

The common strength tests for the evaluation of soil sub-grade are:

 California bearing ratio test.

 California resistance value test.
 Triaxial compression test.
 Plate bearing test.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a penetration test, evolved for the empirical
method of flexible pavement design. The CBR test is carried out either in the
laboratory on prepared specimens or in the field by taking in-situ measurements. This
test is also carried out to evaluate the strength of other flexible pavement component
materials.

California resistance value is found by using Hveem Stabilometer. This test is used in
an empirical method of flexible pavement design based on soil strength.

Though tri-axial test is considered as the most important soil strength test, still the test
is not very commonly used in structural design of pavements. This is because only a
few theoretical methods make use of this tri-axial test results.

The plate bearing test is carried out using a relatively large diameter plate to evaluate
the load supporting capacity of supporting power of the pavement layers. The plate
bearing test is used for determining the elastic modulus of sub-grade and other
pavement layers. The results of the plate bearing tests are used in flexible pavement
design method like McLeod method and the method based on layer system analysis
by Burmister (Highway Engineering- SK Khanna and CEG Justo). Also the test is
used for the determination of modulus of sub-grade reaction in rigid pavement
analysis by Westergaard’s approach.

1.1.4.2 Sub-base, Base courses and their evaluation

These layers are made up of crushed stones, bound or unbound aggregate. Some times
in sub-base course a layer of stabilized soil or selected granular soil is also used.
However at the sub-base-course, it is desirable to use smaller size graded aggregates

8
or soil aggregate mixes or soft aggregates instead of large boulder stone soling course
of brick on edge soling course, as these have no proper interlocking and therefore
have lesser resistance to sinking into the weak sub-grade soil when wet. When the
sub-grade consists of fine grained soil and when the pavement carries heavy wheel
loads, there is a tendency for these boulder stones or bricks to penetrate into the wet
soil, resulting in the formation of undulations and uneven pavement surface in flexible
pavements. Sub-base course primarily has the similar function as of the base course
and is provided with inferior materials than of base course. The functions of the base
course vary according to type of pavement.

Base course and sub-base courses are used under flexible pavement primarily to
improve the load supporting capacity by distributing the load through finite thickness.
Base courses are used under rigid pavement for

 preventing pumping
 protecting the sub-grade against frost action.

Thus the fundamental purpose of a sub-base and base course is to provide a stress
transmitting medium for spreading the surface wheel loads in such manner as to
prevent shear and consolidation deformations.

The sub-base and base course layers may be evaluated by suitable strength or stability
tests like plate bearing, CBR or stabilometer test. Each test has its own advantages
and limitations. Sometimes these layers are evaluated in terms of pressure distribution
characteristics.

1.1.4.3 Surface course and its evaluation

Surface course is made up of asphaltic concrete which consists of asphalt, aggregate
and filler materials. This surface course is a thin bituminous layer which involves in
smoother transference of wheel load from the movement of vehicles and takes care of
the durability aspects of the road. If this is not maintained properly then the surface
course fails with defects such as fine cracks, loss of coarse aggregates and rutting of
smooth surface. These are associated with surfacing layer and may be due to
excessive or deficient quantities of bitumen. The surface course is evaluated for its
strength by conducting the Marshall stability test along with the other tests like
penetration, softening point, ductility etc.

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1.1.5 FAILURES OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Pavement distress and failure can be considered as complex and several factors may
contribute to the pavement deterioration and failure. Classical flexible pavement
failures are formation of potholes, ruts, cracks, localized depressions and settlements.

The localized settlement of any one component layer of the flexible pavement
structure could be enough to cause overall pavement failure. This calls for careful
design and laying of each of the pavement layers one after another. Thus in order to
maintain the stability of the pavement structure as a whole, each layer should be
stable enough within itself and thereby enabling the total pavement to maintain its
stability.

1.1.5.1 Failures in Sub-grade

One of the prime causes of flexible pavement failure is excessive deformation in sub-
grade soil, excessive undulations or waves in the pavement surface and also
depressions followed by heaving of pavement surface and inability to resist wheel
load stresses from the surface due to insufficient bearing capacity or a shear failure in
sub-grade soil. If the applied stress on the sub-grade or pavement is very low
compared to its bearing capacity, the deformation would be elastic, whereas if the
applied stress is excessive with respect to the stability then plastic flow takes place.
The failure of sub-grade may be attributed due to two basic reasons:

 inadequate stability.
 excessive stress application.

Inadequate stability may be due to inherent weakness of the soil itself or excessive
moisture or improper compaction. Stability is defined as the resistance to deformation
under the applied stress. Application of loads in excess of permissible design values,
inadequate pavement thickness often results in the generation of excessive stress on
the pavement. With increase in number of axle load repetitions sub-grade deformation
will also increase.

If the applied stress on the sub-grade or pavement is very low when compared to its
bearing capacity, the deformation due to the load would be elastic or fully recovered
when the load is released. But if the applied stress is excessive with respect to the

10
stability and if plastic flow takes place then the failure occurs in the flexible pavement
as the pavement is not in a position to carry loads.

1.1.5.2 Failures in Sub-base or Base courses

Following are the chief types of sub-base or base course failures:

 Inadequate stability or strength.

 Loss of binding action.
 Loss of base course materials.
 Inadequate wearing course.
 Use of inferior materials and crushing of base course materials.
 Lack of lateral confinement for the granular base course.

Inadequate stability or strength: Poor mix proportioning or inadequate thickness is

one of the main reason for the lack of stability or strength of sub-base or base course.
Soft varieties of stone aggregates also make the base course layer weak. Improper
quality control during the construction results in poor base course rendering it to fail
in no time.

Loss of binding action: Due to the internal movements of aggregate in sub-base or

base course layers under the repeated load applications, the composite structure of the
pavement layers gets disturbed. This results in loosening of the total mass and
formation of alligator cracks on the bituminous surfacing of flexible pavements. There
is also loss of binding action resulting in low stability and poor load transmitting
ability of the pavement layers.

Loss of base course materials: The loss of base course materials is only possible
when either the base course is not covered with a wearing course or the wearing
course has completely worn out. Due to the fast moving vehicles with different axle
loads plying on road, there is a suction caused between the pneumatic tyres and the
exposed base course material. This causes removal of binding material in water bound
macadam (WBM) base and as a result the stone aggregates are left in a loose state.

The exposed aggregates of the base course also may form dust due to abrading action
and attrition. With further use of such pavement sections, there is loss of stone
aggregates forming pot holes. The removal of materials is called raveling. The

11
preventive measures include, repair of the pot holes and by painting the surface with
dust palliative or providing a suitable surface treatment.

Inadequate wearing course: Absence of wearing course or inadequate thickness or

stability of wearing course exposes the base course to the damaging effects of climatic
variations mainly due to rains, frost action and traffic.

Depending upon the type, intensity and volume of traffic, a suitable type and
thickness of wearing course is provided over the base course. Bullock cart traffic
causes damaging effects to the surface course. Pervious wearing course also permits
the surface water to seep, through and soften the base course thus weakening it.

Use of inferior materials: Many main structural failures are attributed to the use of
inferior materials in the paving jobs. Some materials exhibit satisfactory
characteristics initially, but show rapid deterioration due to weathering over a period
of time. The suitability of paving materials should be judged by the number of tests to
be considered for highway materials and specifications for constructions.

1.1.5.3 Failures of Surface course: Failures of surface course is due to lack of

appropriate mix design. Improper gradation of aggregates, inadequate binder
content and inferior type of binder results in a poor bituminous surfacing leading to
cracking. Apart from the better design aspects, the bituminous construction requires
a high degree of quality control.

Volatilization and oxidation of binder makes the bituminous surfacing more brittle
and causes cracking of the pavement surface which further allows seepage of rain
water to the underlying layers leading to the overall failure.

1.1.6 ROLE OF CBR METHOD IN PAVEMENT DESIGN

The design of flexible pavements is generally done by the criterion of California

Bearing Ratio test (CBR) conducted in laboratory or field on soil sample. As in-situ
CBR tests are difficult to perform and time consuming, the general practice is to
obtain the soil sample from the field and optimum moisture content (OMC) is
determined in the laboratory by standard proctor test. The soil is compacted in CBR
mould at OMC and CBR is obtained in soaked condition.

12
Earlier methods of design of pavements were based on the assumption that the load
through the pavement is spread on the sub-grade through a cone. The following
factors have been vitally considered for a rational design.

 Characteristics of the natural sub-grade which underlies the road.

 Intensity and nature of traffic (to be assumed).
 The amount of moisture present in the sub-soil and drainage conditions.
 Climatic conditions of the locality in respect of rains, snow, landslides, etc.

Thickness of pavement is designed based on projected cumulative standard axles in

million standard axles (msa) for the design of life period calculated from the
commercial vehicles per day and growth rate. Further it requires sub-grade strength
value in terms of CBR. It is expected that rural roads will not have more than 200
commercial vehicles per day, and therefore, they will not be axle repetitions more
than 2 msa.

Cumulative million standard axles should then be used with design chart to obtain the
total pavement crest thickness required over the sub-grade for the design life of the
pavement. Based on the strength of the granular sub-base and base course materials
that are used, the total design thickness is divided amongst base and sub-base.
However, in other higher types of road bituminous layer also can be part of design
thickness. In case of rural roads, for low volume traffic, structural layer of the
bituminous mix needs to be provided. Only adequate sealing surface with proper
riding quality is sufficient.

1.1.7 QUALITY CONTROL SPECIFICATIONS

1. The flexible pavement failures may be due to localized settlement of any one
of the component layers.

2. Each layer should be carefully designed and laid up to the specifications and
see that, to maintain the total stability of the pavement structure as a whole.

3. Poor sub-grade soil gives excessive deformation due to inherent weaknesses

of the soils such as imbibitions of excess moisture, plasticity. These are
difficult to compact, and they possess insufficient bearing capacity to take
care of wheel loads, finally resulting in shear failure of the sub-grade soil.

13
4. The plastic flow takes place under wet conditions of the sub-grade if the
applied stresses are excessive. (Plastic deformations)

1.1.8 MoRT&H SPECIFICATIONS

As per ministry of road transport and highways (MoRT&H) sub-grade shall be

compacted to 97% of dry density achieved with heavy compaction as per IS: 2720
(Part VIII).
For high category roads like expressways, national highways and state highways, the
material used for sub-grade construction should have a dry density of not less than
1.75 g/cc.

Table 1.2 CBR variation ranges as per IRC 37-2001

CBR Maximum variation in CBR value

5 ±1

5-10 ±2

11-30 ±3

31 and above ±5

Preferably the sub-grade soil should have a CBR value of 2%. The sub-base material
should have minimum CBR of 20% for cumulative traffic up to 2 msa and 30% for
traffic exceeding 2 msa. The thickness of sub-base should not be less than 150mm for
design traffic less than 10 msa and 200 mm for design traffic of 10 msa and above.
For base course the recommended minimum thickness of granular base is 225mm for
traffic up to 2 msa and 250mm for traffic exceeding 2 msa. However the CBR
variation ranges as per IRC 37-2001 are as shown in the Table 1.2.

1.1.9REQUIREMENTS OF SOIL, AGGREGATE, BITUMEN FOR USE AS

PAVEMENT MATERIALS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

All the materials used in the flexible pavements construction like soil, aggregate and
bitumen are highly versatile and complex materials, possessing physical, chemical,
index and engineering properties that have a wide gamut of possible values.
Practically all the above materials are used as main components in the construction of

14
highways directly in their natural state with slight improvements in their properties.
The requirements for usage of all these materials in various engineering constructions
are presented as shown below.

1.1.9.1 Requirements of soil for use as pavement material at sub-grade

The construction material used for highway components such as embankments, sub-
grades, earthen shoulders and miscellaneous backfills is soil, moorum, gravel or a
mixture of these, which is free from organic matter (MoRT&H specification 4 th
Revision, 2001). Expansive clay exhibiting swell and shrinkage properties (free swell
index > 50% when tested as per IS: 2720-Part 40) shall not be used as a fill material
where as expansive clay with acceptable free swell index value is used as a fill
material and sub-grade.

1.1.9.2 Requirements of soil, aggregate for use as pavement materials at sub-

base course

The material used in sub-base course of pavements are natural sand, moorum, gravel,
crushed stone or combination thereof depending upon the grading requirement. The
materials such as crushed slag, crushed concrete are also being used by checking the
compliance with gradation requirements presented in Table 1.3 for close graded
granular sub-base material and Table 1.4 for coarse graded granular sub-base
material. Requirement of aggregate for use in the pavement layers are presented in
Table 1.5.

Table 1.3 Grading for close graded granular sub-base materials

Percentage by weight passing the IS sieve

IS sieve designation (mm)
Grading I Grading II Grading III
75 100 --- ---
53 80-100 100 ---
26.5 55-90 70-100 100
9.5 35-65 50-80 65-95
4.75 25-55 40-65 50-80
2.36 20-40 30-50 40-65
0.425 10-25 15-25 20-35
0.075 3-10 3-10 3-10

15
 Table 1.4 Grading for coarse graded granular sub-base material

Percentage by weight passing the IS sieve

IS sieve designation (mm)
Grading I Grading II Grading III
75 100 --- ---
53 --- 100 ---
26.5 55-75 50-80 100
9.5 --- --- ---
4.75 10-30 15-35 25-45
2.36 --- --- ---
0.425 --- --- ---
0.075 < 10 < 10 < 10

Table 1.5 Requirements of aggregate for use in the pavement layers (MoRT&H,
2001)

S.No Type of pavement Maximum Maximum Maximum Maximum

permissible permissible permissible permissible
aggregate aggregate aggregate flakiness
crushing abrasion impact index (%)
value (%) value (%) value (%)
1 Water bound
macadam sub-base 40 60 --- ---
course
2 WBM base course
with bituminous 40 50 40 15
surfacing
3 Bituminous bound
40 50 35 15
macadam
4 WBM surfacing
40 15
course
5 Bituminous
penetration --- 40 30 25
macadam
6 Bituminous surface
dressing, cement
30 35 30 25
concrete surface
course
7 Bituminous
concrete surface 30 30 30 25
course
Bituminous carpet 30 30
8 Water absorption shall not be more than 0.6 percent
unit by weight

16
The requirements of gradation and PI are shown in Table 1.6, physical requirements
of coarse aggregates for SDBC (as per MoRT&H) are shown in Table 1.7, aggregate
size of SDBC pavement layers (as per MoRT&H) are shown in Table 1.8, properties
of bitumen (as per MoRT&H) are shown in Table 1.9 and Marshall mix design
criteria for SDBC pavement layers (as per MoRT&H) are shown in Table 1.10.

1.1.9.3 Requirements of soil, aggregate for use as pavement materials at

base course

Table 1.6 Requirements of gradation and PI

1 Sub-base courses/ Base courses

(a) Gradation requirements
Fraction Percent by weight
(i) Passing 45 mm and retained on 2.36 mm 45-65
IS sieve
(ii) Passing 2.36 mm and retained on 75 30-40
micron IS sieve
(iii) Passing 75 micron IS sieve 5-15
(b) The plasticity index of the fine fraction (passing 425 µ IS sieve) should be less
than 6
2 Wearing course
(a) Gradation requirements
Fraction Percent by weight
(i) Passing 45 mm and retained on 2.36 mm 30-60
IS sieve
(ii) Passing 2.36 mm and retained on 75 30-50
micron IS sieve
(iii) Passing 75 micron IS sieve 10-25
(b) PI Requirement
Climate Liquid limit not to
exceed
(i) Moist temperate & wet tropical 35%
(ii) Seasonal wet tropical 40%
(iii) Arid 55% 15-30

17
1.1.9.4 Requirements of aggregate, bitumen for use as pavement materials at
surface course

Table 1.7 Physical requirements of coarse aggregates for SDBC (as

per MoRT&H)

Physical properties Test name Required limits Test methods

Cleanliness Grain size analysis ≤ 5% passing IS: 2386

0.075 mm sieve (Part I)

Particle shape Flakiness and ≤ 30 % (combined) IS: 2386

Elongation index (Part I)

Strength Los Angeles abrasion ≤ 40 % for BM IS: 2386

value ≤ 35 % for DBM & (Part IV)
SDBC
≤ 30 % for BC

Aggregate impact ≤ 30 % for BM IS: 2386

value ≤ 27 % for DBM & (Part IV)
SDBC
≤ 24 % for BC

Durability Soundness ≤ 12% IS: 2386

Sodium sulphate ≤ 18% (Part V)
Magnesium sulphate

Absorption Water absorption ≤ 2% IS: 2386

(Part III)

Stripping Coating and stripping ≥ 95 % IS: 6241

of aggregate bitumen

Water sensitivity Retained tensile ≥ 80 % To be done if

strength stripping fails

Polishing Polished stone value ≥ 55 % IS: 2386

for SDBC (Part IV)

18
 Table 1.8 Aggregate size of SDBC pavement layers (as per MoRT&H)

Cumulative % passing by weight of total aggregate

IS sieve size (mm) Grading I for Grading II for
thickness 35-40 (mm) thickness 25-30 (mm)

19.0 100 ---

13.2 90-100 100

9.5 70-90 90-100

4.75 35-51 35-51

2.36 24-39 24-39

1.18 15-30 15-30

0.3 9-19 9-19

0.075 3-8 3-8

Bitumen content in % by Minimum 4.5 Minimum 5.0

weight of mix

Table 1.9 Properties of bitumen (as per MoRT&H)

Property Specification as per BIS Code

IS: 73-2006

Penetration at 25ºC, 100 g, 5 sec , 0.1 mm 50-70 IS:1203

Softening point (R&B) in ºC. Minimum 47 IS:1205

Ductility in cm at 25ºC, Minimum 40 IS:1208

Specific gravity Minimum 0.99 IS:1202

19
 Table 1.10 Marshall mix design criteria for SDBC pavement layers (as
per MoRT&H)

Mix criteria Limitation ranges

Minimum Maximum

Stability (kN at 60○ C) 8.2 ---

Minimum flow (mm) 2 4

Compaction level (number of 75 blows on each face of the specimen

blows)

Percent air voids 3 5

Percent voids in mineral aggregate Depends on nominal maximum aggregate

(VMA) size and VA

Percent voids filled with bitumen 65 78

(VFB)

1.1.10 GENERATION OF DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL WASTES

Huge quantities of wastes are being produced from various industries namely
agricultural wastes, municipal solid wastes, nuclear wastes, biomedical wastes and e-
wastes.

Agricultural wastes include rice husk ash generated from paddy fields, bagasse ash
from sugar cane fields, coir fiber from coconut fields, groundnut shell from ground
nut fields, etc. Municipal solid wastes include wastes generated by daily human
domestic activities. Industrial wastes are of various types, generated from various
industries which are of both hazardous and non-hazardous in nature. They include
thermal power plants, rock crushing plants, alloy companies, steel plants etc. Nuclear
waste is generated from industrial, medical and scientific processes that use
radioactive material for different activities. Nuclear waste can have significant
detrimental effects on human and marine habitats. As nuclear wastes are hazardous,
they are not recommended for reutilization in civil engineering construction activities.
Biomedical wastes are generated from the hospitals which include pathological,
anatomical, infectious and hazardous waste, and are produced from health centers and

20
medical laboratories. E-Wastes include electrical and electronic goods in the form of
damaged and condemned computers, CD's, TV's, medical apparatus, refrigerators etc.

The generation of these wastes is increasing day by day due to rapid growth in
industrialization associated with socio-economic development of the countries.

1.1.11 DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES USED IN THE STUDY

To reduce the maintenance cost to the normal level and to increase the life of the
pavement up to the design period, alternative industrial waste materials such as
crusher dust (CD), ground granulated waste tyre (GGWT), crumb rubber waste tyre
(CRWT), polyethylene (PE) and styrene butadiene styrene (SBS) etc, have been
identified. All these are identified as non-plastic materials which causes less
compression and less plastic strains.

Based on the efforts of so many researchers, some of the wastes are found to be used
effectively in various civil engineering constructions as described below in India.

1.1.11.1 Crusher Dust

Quarry dust is a kind of waste material that is generated from the stone crushing
industry which is abundantly available to the extent of 200 million tonnes per annum.
It is a mix of small crushed cream/brown rock and fines which is a waste material
generated from the stone crushing industry. This mix of small rock and fines when
compacted, binds together well and creates a strong, stable surface to work on.
Crusher dust is a common by-product of mining and quarrying. Rather than being
discarded as a waste material, recycled crusher dust has many practical applications in
construction activities. Using crusher dust in lieu of other materials can have
resounding environmental and economical benefits. With fine particles like soft sand,
crusher dust can be used as a cost-effective filling and packing material around water
tanks, blended with natural sands to improve concrete shrinkage and water demand.
The production costs of crusher dust are relatively low compared to other building
materials. Crusher dusts use less water than other alternatives and have excellent load
bearing capabilities and durability. Crusher dust is fire and heat resistant; non-plastic;
and alkaline when exposed to moisture, making it an ideal material to use in
construction. It is being used as basement fill material, back fill behind the retaining
wall and for making of concrete as a fine aggregate, preparation of cement blocks and

21
cement mortar. Rock flour can be used in the construction of roads with respect to
other geotechnical applications such as reinforced soil constructions in highway
construction due to the free draining and good shearing resistance values. Total
quantity of crusher dust generated from the state of Andhra Pradesh is 1, 34, 26,020
tones per annum. The amount of rock flour produce from crushing plant is about 15%
of weight of rock crushed. The districts of Visakhapatnam, Guntur, East Godavari,
West Godavari, Prakasam and Ananthapur constitutes to about 50% of the total rock
flour generated from the state of Andhra Pradesh. The crusher dust production details
covering all the districts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states as shown in Table
1.11, 1.12 respectively.

Table 1.11 Crusher dust production details of Andhra Pradesh state

Quantity of stone Quantity of stone No. of

S.No District
crushed (t/d) crushed (t/a) crushers
1 Srikakulam 5727 1145400 92

2 Vizianagaram 2484 496800 60

3 Visakhapatnam 6238 1247520 125

4 East Godavari 6279 1255800 100

5 West Godavari 5750 1150000 110

6 Krishna 5434 1086750 116

7 Guntur 7993 1598500 153

8 Prakasam 6613 1322500 127

9 Nellore 1748 349600 42

10 Kadapa 5123 941850 109

11 Kurnool 2300 460000 55

12 Chitoor 23345 466900 64

13 Anathapur 9522 1904400 152

22
 Table 1.12 Crusher dust production details of Telangana state

Quantity of stone Quantity of stone No. of

S.No District
crushed (t/d) crushed (t/a) crushers

1 Adilabad 311 62100 10

2 Nizamabad 1242 248400 20

3 Karimnagar 5273 1054550 144

4 Nalgonda 3738 747500 72

5 Warangal 2415 483000 75

6 Mehaboobnagar 690 138000 22

7 Medak 4111 822250 72

8 RangaReddy 1380 276000 53

9 Khammam 2300 460000 55

1.1.11.2 Ground Granulated Waste Tyre

Today most tyres, especially those fitted to motor vehicles, are manufactured from
synthetic rubber. In civil engineering applications, usually tyres are used in a shred
form referred to as “tyre chips”. The tyre chips whose size is less than 10mm with
steel belting removed in processing is referred to as ground granulated waste tyre
(GGWT). Approximately 25-30 million scrap tyres are being used for civil
engineering applications like landfill cover, artificial reefs, clean fill for road
embankment, road bed support and similar projects. One of most important properties
is that tyre shreds are lightweight materials. It is relatively inexpensive compared to
other light fill materials. Tyre shreds induce low horizontal stresses since they are
lightweight and have relatively high shear strength. However tyre shreds have not
been tried extensively for using it in sub-grade, sub-base and base layers of the
pavement.

1.1.11.3 Crumb Rubber Waste Tyre

The tyre chips whose size is in between 10mm-50mm with steel belting removed in
processing is referred to as crumb rubber waste tyre (CRWT). The earliest experiment
dates back to the 1840's which involved in incorporating natural rubber to increase its

23
engineering performance properties. The process of soil, aggregate and bitumen
modification involving natural and synthetic rubber was introduced as early as 1843.
Later in 1923, natural and synthetic rubber modifications in bitumen were further
improved. In recent years, the use of crumb rubber has gained interest in pavement
modification and investigations have shown that the crumb tyre rubber improves the
performance properties of bitumen. The crumb rubber is made by shredding scrap
tyre, which is a particular material free of fiber and steel. The rubber particle is graded
and found in many sizes and shapes. The crumb rubber is described or measured by
the mesh screen or sieve size through which it passes during the production process.
To produce crumb rubber, generally, it is important to reduce the size of the tyres.
There are two techniques to produce crumb rubber; ambient grinding and the
cryogenic process. The ambient grinding process can be divided into two methods:
granulation and cracker mills. The ambient describes the temperature when the waste
tyres rubber as its size is reduced. The material is loaded inside the crack mill or
granulator at ambient temperature. The cryogenic grinding is a cleaner, slightly faster
operation resulting in production of fine mesh size. The high cost of this process is a
disadvantage due to the added cost of liquid nitrogen. Crumb rubber particles
resulting from ambient processing have an irregular shape with a rough texture due to
the tearing and shredding action of the rubber particles in the cracker mills. The
crumb rubber particles produced by the cryogenic method, on the other hand, have
smooth surfaces, which resemble shattered glass. The ambient particles possess higher
surface area than the cryogenic crumb rubber which results in higher interaction with
the bitumen particles. In general, a typical scrap tyre contains (by weight)

 70 percent recoverable rubber

 15 percent steel

 3 percent fiber

 12 percent extraneous material (e.g., inert fillers)

24
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE WORK

The present work is aimed at studying the effective utilization of various industrial
wastes like crusher dust, ground granulated waste tyre, crumb rubber waste tyre,
polyethylene and styrene butadiene styrene at appropriate courses of flexible
pavement components collected from the north coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh by
considering their geotechnical characteristics, as pavement materials. To achieve the
aim, the whole study is planned with the following objectives.

1. To study the suitability of crusher dust as sub-grade material.

2. To develop a Triangular CBR chart in order to save time and money for
obtaining error free results to the extent possible.

3. To study the use of crusher dust and ground granulated waste tyre as sub-
base materials (<4.75mm)

4. To study the use of crushed stone (26.5mm to 4.75mm) and crusher dust
(4.75mm to 0.075mm) with ground granulated waste tyre as sub-base
materials (< 4.75mm)

25
 CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 EARLIER STUDIES CARRIED ON INDUSTRIAL WASTES

Several studies have been carried out to overcome the problem of wastes disposal
generated from various industries over the last three to four decades. Several
researchers have explored the benefits of industrial wastes utilization in various civil
engineering construction activities and their applications on a very large scale with
much promising results based on their scientific study.

2.1.1 Crusher dust

Out of the different quarry wastes, crusher dust is the one, which is produced in
abundance during the processing of coarse aggregates from the rock at rock crushing
plant. About 20–25% of the total production in each crusher unit is left out as the
waste material, commercially called as crusher dust, quarry dust, rock flour etc. Rock
flour is a stable material under varying moisture conditions since it contains inert rock
materials such as quartz, feldspar and silica. Bulk utilization of this waste material is
possible through geotechnical applications like embankment construction material,
back-fill material applications, sub-base construction material etc. It becomes a useful
additive to the natural soil to improve its strength characteristics. Crusher dust has the
properties similar to natural sand and it can be used as alternative material to sand in
order to preserve the river mining and mining of sand. The amount of rock flour
produced at crushing plants is about 15% of weight of rock crushed.

Anu Paul et.al (2014)3, reported that Maximum Dry density increases and optimum
moisture content decreases considerably with addition of optimum percentage of Egg
Shell Powder and varying percentage of Quarry Dust. Atterberg’s limits decreases
considerably with addition of optimum percentage of Egg Shell Powder and Quarry
Dust. PI is almost constant for 20% and 30% Quarry Dust with optimum percentage
of egg shell. Hence 20% ESP & 30% Quarry Dust is selected as optimum percentage.
Since Egg shell and Quarry dust are waste products, usage of same reduces the
environmental problems.

26
Bshara et.al (2014)8, studied the improvements of strength characteristics of poor soil
by adding the stone dust and observed better results in the strength aspects.

Bindhu Lal et.al (2014)10, observed that the above properties have optimally
improved by adding stone dust. This study shows that stone dust can be satisfactorily
used as a cheap stabilizing agent for sub-grade layers and sub-base layers of a
Flexible Pavement.

Jagmohan Mishra (2014)40, has studied the effect of addition of granite dust on the
index properties of black cotton soil stabilized with 5% lime. It is reported that the
liquid limit and plasticity index decreased from 37 % to 28% and 17.4% to 4.80%
respectively by treating black cotton soil with 5% lime and varying granite dust
content from 0% to 30% by weight. The addition of granite dust to lime stabilized BC
soil is found to decrease swelling behavior to a greater extent.

Purushotham G Sarvade et.al (2014)82, observed the improvements in the

geotechnical properties of Lithomargic Clay. There is an increase of 18% in
maximum dry density (MDD) values for the addition of 50% quarry dust.

Shiva Prasad et.al (2014)96, from the tests conducted on the two soils, it was
observed that maximum dry density and optimum moisture content decreases with
increase in percentage of crumb rubber on soils. The UCS value increased with
increase in percentage of crumb rubber and the maximum values were observed as
45% at 10% and 80% at 15% for the soil sample S1 and soil sample S2 respectively.

Surabhi Chawda (2014)107, from his test results revealed that the compaction
parameters and CBR values of the soil are improved substantially with the addition of
the granite dust. The result showed the CBR value increased from 1.7% to 7.15%, the
optimum moisture content have been reduced from 22% to 14.3% and the maximum
dry density have been increased from 1.58 g/cc to 1.88 g/cc.

Naman Agarwal et.al (2015)65, concluded that there is a demonstrable effect on

maximum dry density of soils on mixing stone dust. Adding small percentage of stone
dust increases its maximum dry density. The study also reveals the fact that with
increase in percentage of stone dust in soil, the optimum moisture content decreases
which also help in decrease of water quantity required during compaction. By mixing
stone dust with soil CBR is also found to get improve. On adding optimum

27
percentage, 30% of stone dust to soil CBR increases about 50%.

Naman Agarwal (2015)66, observed that adding 50% of stone dust is effective in
decreasing optimum moisture content of soils which is advantageous in decreasing
quantity of water required during compaction. The study also reveals the fact that with
increase in the percentage of stone dust MDD of soil increases. Mixing of soils with
stone dust is also found to improve its CBR. Adding only 30% of stone dust is found
to increase the CBR of soil by nearly 50%.

Manjunath et.al (2015)53, identified that on adding the varied percentages of stone
dust to the black cotton soil stabilized with optimum ratio of rice husk ash, the
plasticity index of the soil reduces from 26.18 % to 18.24% with the increase in the
percentage of stone dust which was found to be promising.

Venkateswarlu et.al (2015)109, observed that the liquid limit and plastic limit
decreasing irrespective of the percentage of addition of Quarry Dust. It was found that
the Maximum Dry Density attained at 10% Quarry Dust and OMC goes on decreasing
with increase in percentage of Quarry Dust. It was noticed that the Un-soaked CBR
goes on increasing with increase in percentage of addition of Quarry Dust.

2.1.2 Ground granulated waste tyre

Most of the tyres, especially those fitted to motor vehicles, are manufactured from
synthetic rubber. As the numbers of vehicles are increasing, it is obvious to have
heaps of discarded rubber tyres. One of the main issues associated with the
management of scrap tyres has been their proper disposal. Using tyre shreds for civil
engineering application has several advantages due to their unique characteristics.
One of most important properties is that tyre shreds are a light weight material. It is
relatively inexpensive compared to other light fill materials. Tyre shreds induce low
horizontal stresses since they are lightweight and have relatively high shear strength.
However tyre shreds have not been tried extensively for using it in sub-grade and sub-
base layers of the pavement.

Mavroulidou et.al (2010)55, has studied the potential of discarded tyre rubber as
concrete aggregate. This research investigated a wide range of physical and
mechanical properties of concrete containing recycled tyre aggregates, to assess its
suitability as a construction material. The results showed that despite a great loss in
strength, this type of concrete was acceptable for various applications requiring
28
medium to low compressive strength.

Prasad et.al (2010)75, observed that, the load carrying capacity of the model flexible
pavement system is significantly increased by introducing reinforcement material in
gravel sub-bases laid on expansive soil sub-grade.

Baleshwar Singh et.al (2011)9, observed that the tyre chips mixed in a compacted
fine-grained soil can result in greater strength and improved ductility.

Moghaddas et.al (2012)60, conducted a series of tests on sand reinforced with waste
tyre strips. They showed that with the increase of rubber content, thickness of rubber
content, and thickness of reinforced soil layer, results in increase of bearing capacity
and decrease of settlement.

Panda et.al (2012)73, has reported on scrap-tyre-rubber replacement for aggregate in

cement concrete. In this study an attempt has been made to identify the various
properties necessary for the design of concrete mix with the coarse tyre rubber chips
as aggregate in a systematic manner. In the present experimental investigation, the
M20 grade concrete has been chosen as the reference concrete specimen. Scrap tyre
rubber chips, has been used as coarse aggregate with the replacement of conventional
coarse aggregate.

Ravi Kumar Sharma (2013)88, reported the effect of waste tube rubber chips on
compaction, sub-grade and drainage characteristics of clay mixed with sand and fly
ash. This research is an attempt to investigate the effect of randomly distributed waste
tyre tube rubber chips on compaction, sub-grade and drainage characteristics of clay
soil mixed with sand and fly ash. The effect of different mix proportions of clay, sand
and fly ash on compaction, California bearing ratio (CBR) and permeability values
has been studied.

Sanjeev Naval et.al (2014)92, identified that, the use of waste tyre strip in form of
grids is a viable alternative for improving the soil behaviour, particularly when
environmental effect is considered.

2.1.3 Crumb rubber waste tyre

Use of tyre chips in construction projects, such as highway embankments, is

becoming an accepted way of beneficially recycling scrap tyres. However, over the
last decade there was decline in the use of pure tyre shreds as fill materials in
29
embankment construction, due to their susceptibility to fire hazards due to
development of exothermic reactions. Tyre shred-sand mixtures, on the other hand,
were found to be effective in inhibiting exothermic reactions and when compared with
pure tyre shreds, tyre shred-sand mixtures are less compressible and possess higher
shear strength.

Martin Christ et.al (2010)54, conducted direct shear test on rubber sand mixes and
showed that rubber mix soil have higher compressive, shear, and tensile strength as
compared to pure sand.

Meei-Hoan Ho et.al (2010)56, reported the potential of using rubber chips as a soft
clay stabilizer-enhancing agent. A series of laboratory tests were carried out to study
the fundamental mechanical and chemical properties of the cement-rubber chip
stabilized kaolin. The mechanical properties examined included bender element and
unconfined compressive strength, while the chemical properties included pH values,
conductivity and the percentage of oxide concentration. The overall test results
indicated that cement is effective in stabilizing the soils, where significant
improvement of unconfined compressive strength (qu) is noticed.

Ayothiraman et.al (2011)7, analyzed the sub-grade improvement with the addition of
shredded waste tyre chips which showed a remarkable increase in the strength
characteristics.

Koteswara Rao et.al (2012)45, conducted a laboratory study on the influence of

rubber strips on the improvement of CBR values of expansive soil. In this study, the
influence of rubber strips as reinforcement on the strength properties of expansive soil
was studied. It is observed that the CBR value of the expansive soil has been
increased by 88% with addition of 5% rubber strips as an optimum.

Naval et.al (2013)67, performed load tests and triaxial tests on granular soils
reinforced with randomly mixed tyre shreds 1.5mm-2.0mm thick. The thickness of
reinforced layer was kept as 0.5B, 1.0B, 1.5B and 2.0B (where B is width of footing),
it was found maximum bearing capacity improvement was observed at a fibre content
of 0.75% with depth of reinforcement 1.5B. The angle of internal friction improved
from 28○ to 42○ at the same fibre content.

Ghatge Sandeep Hambirao et.al (2014)17, observed that, California bearing ratio
(soaked) has increased from 1.24% to 11.16% for 4% cement which reduces
30
pavement thickness by 64.51% for black cotton soil. Shedi soil shows an increase in
California bearing ratio (soaked) from 2.63% to 13.79% which reduces pavement
thickness by 66.66%. Significant increase in CBR value reduced the total thickness
of the pavement and hence the total cost involved in the project. Shredded rubber
fiber can be considered as a good reinforcement material.

Mandeep Singh et.al (2014)52, concluded that, using waste tyres in geotechnical
engineering applications may be feasible to consume the scrap tyres. Waste tyre can
use for improvement of bearing capacity soil up to optimum rubber content and. Tyre
waste can effectively use as soil reinforcement beneath footing, embankment and
retaining wall.

Srinivas et.al (2015)103, concluded that addition of waste plastics and waste tyre
rubber inclusions in gravel and fly ash results in an appreciable increase in the shear
characteristics and CBR value.
2.2 SUMMARY

In this Chapter, the research experiences of various agencies, individuals working in

the fields of problematic soils investigation and industrial wastes utilization are
presented. The specific scope of the present study based on the vital appraisal of
literature is also supplemented to the extent possible. In the next chapter, the detailed
particulars of the laboratory experiments conducted with five different industrial
wastes as mentioned earlier are discussed with the help of adopted methodology.

31
 CHAPTER-3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 GENERAL

In the previous chapter, a decisive evaluation of the literature on series of problems

caused by the problematic soils, aggregate (stone) and bitumen and their corrective
measures with the utilization of selected industrial wastes to lessen the probable
damages are discussed. In this chapter, the methodology of the present research work,
a brief description of the experimental procedures adopted for testing the properties of
conventional materials and selected industrial wastes is presented with the aid of
systematic flow charts. The laboratory testing procedures practiced during
experimentation is also described at length as per the governing guide lines of various
authentic agencies.

Geotechnical characteristics information of various industrial wastes is essentially

required for the selection, design and implementation of efficient waste management
solutions in the process of stabilization. If these industrial wastes are to be assessed
for their suitability in civil engineering construction activities, some of the physical,
index, engineering and mechanical properties of these waste materials need to be
evaluated on experimentation basis. Especially the geotechnical characterization is
important for making use of industrial waste dumps. Use of industrial waste materials
in the construction projects that consume large volumes of the materials, such as
highway pavement construction, basement fillings, backfilling behind retaining
structures not only provides a promising solution to the disposal problem, but also
proves to be most viable and economic alternative towards the optimum usage of
conventional materials.

The proposed methodology in this research work is aimed at the determination of

some of the physical, index, engineering and mechanical properties of the five
industrial wastes that are collected from the north coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh
with an objective of exploring their overall amalgamation and compatibility across all
the layers of a given flexible road pavement component. The present study involves in
analyzing the laboratory investigations made on the selective industrial waste
materials as mentioned earlier and the criteria adopted for assessing the suitability of
these waste materials in flexible pavement component construction activities. The
methodology adopted for the critical study of this research work is presented in
Fig. 3.1.
32
3.2 MATERIALS

The following industrial waste materials, produced at the industries located in and
around the north coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh are selected for the study, in order
to investigate their usage and compatibility across all the layers of a given Flexible road
pavement component.

1. Crusher Dust is procured from a crushing stone unit located nearer to

Deshmukhi From Ranga Reddy District Telangana , India. Apart from that, the
results are also validated against crusher dust mixes of Zone I to Zone IV.

2. Aggregate is acquired from a stone crushing unit located nearer to Deshmukhi

From Ranga Reddy District Telangana , India.

3. Ground Granulated Waste Tyre (GGWT) and Crumb Rubber Waste Tyre (CRWT)
have been collected from Tyre retreading industries located in Visakhapatnam
city, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Extensive laboratory investigations are carried out on the above mentioned industrial
waste materials in order to determine some of their physical, index, engineering and
mechanical properties for establishing their probable reinforcing and compatibility
across all the flexible pavement road component layers.

3.3 LABORATORY TESTING PROCEDURES OF CONVENTIONAL

MATERIALS AND INDUSTRIAL WASTES
All the required laboratory tests are carried out on the conventional and industrial waste
materials for judging their geotechnical, physical and engineering characterization as
described below.

3.3.1 Grain Size Analysis

Grain size analysis is conducted as per IS: 2720 (Part IV) - 1985 for waste materials.

Wet analysis

Sieve analysis was carried out using a set of standard (I.S) Sieves. The sample was
oven dried and placed on the top of the sieve set and shaken by hand. The fine
fraction that passed through 75 micron sieve was taken and hydrometer analysis was
carried out in 1000 ml for using the required quantuty of sodium hexametaphosphate
as dispersing agent. The test was carried out according to IS: 2720- (Part IV) - 1985.
33
Dry Analysis

A known quantity of oven dried sample has taken in a set of dieves i.e., 4.75mm,
2.36, 1.18 mm, 600 μ, 425μ, 300μ, 150μ, 75μ as shown in Fig. 3.3 are arranged in an
ascending order and shake for 10 minutes to 15 minutes on a sieve shaker. The weight
retained on each sieve has obtained and their corresponding percentage finer has
detrmined. Therefore from the graph plotted between percentage finer as ordinate and
particle size (D in mm) as abcissa, mean particle size D10, D15, D30 , D50, D60, D85, D90
are determined similarly the Coefficeint of Uniformity (C u) and Coefficient of
Curvature (Cc) also be determined.

Figure 3.3 Sieve Shaker with set of IS sieves

The results of grain size analysis are represented graphically in the form of a grain
size distribution curve in which the cumulative percentage finer on Y-axis and particle
size on X-axis (logarithmic scale).

3.3.2 Plasticity Characteristics

To find out the liquid limit of waste materials, cone penetration method is adopted as
per IS: 2720 (Part V) - 1985. All waste materials which are selected for the work are
non plastic materials and hence plastic limit is not determined.

3.3.3 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity (G) of industrial wastes are determined by using density bottle
method for fine grained waste material with water and kerosene as per IS: 2720 (Part
III/section 1) - 1980 and pycnometer method for coarse grained waste material as per
34
IS: (Part III/section 2) - 1980. Specific gravity of coarse aggregate sized materials are
determined by using glass vessel / pycnometer as per the IS: 2369 (Part III) - 1963.

3.3.4 Compaction Characteristics

Modified proctors compaction test is also known as the heavy compaction test is
conducted for waste materials as per the IS:2720 (Part VIII) - 1983. Compaction
mould of 1000cc is used in the test and compaction is done in five layers by giving 25
blows per layer, using a rammer of 4.89 kg weight with a fall of 45cm. From the
laboratory test results, bell shaped compaction curve is drawn between compacted dry
density (g/cc) on y-axis and moisture content (%) on x-axis. The dry density
corresponding to the peak point on the compaction curve is reported as the maximum
dry density (MDD) and corresponding moisture content reported as optimum moisture
content (OMC). The compaction mould set up is as shown in the Fig. 3.4.

Figure 3.4 Compaction Moulds along with rammers

3.3.5 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate soil specimen with a circular
plunger of standard size (50mm) at a standard rate (at 1.25mm/minute) to that
required for the corresponding penetration of a standard material is known as
California Bearing Ratio. CBR values are determined for conventional as well as
waste materials as per the IS: 2720 (Part XVI) - 1987. The specimens are compacted
in mould of 150mm diameter at required OMC and MDD, soaked for four days, and
tests are conducted by making the plunger of 50mm diameter to penetrate the
specimen at 1.25mm/minute. The surcharge weight is placed on the top of the
specimen in the mould and the assembly is placed under the plunger of the loading
35
frame. The load values are noted corresponding to penetration values of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 mm. The load values to cause 2.5mm and
5.0mm penetration are recorded and the load Vs penetration graph is plotted. The
CBR test set up is as shown in Fig. 3.5.

CBR value at 2.5mm penetration = Test load at 2.5mm penetration x (100/1370)

CBR value at 5.0mm penetration = Test load at 5.0mm penetration x (100/2055)

1370 kg and 2055 kg (70 and 105 kg/cm2) are standard loads

Normally CBR at 2.5mm penetration is more than 5.0mm penetration, and if that is
the case, the CBR corresponding to 2.5mm penetration itself is taken as the CBR for
design purposes. When the ratio at 5.0mm penetration is consistently higher than the
2.5mm penetration, the test is conducted again and the higher of the two ratios
corresponding to 2.5mm and 5.0mm is reported as CBR value.

Figure 3.5 CBR Apparatus

3.3.6 Aggregate Impact Test

36
The Aggregate impact test is conducted as per IS:2386 (Part IV) - 1963 and the
sample consists of aggregates passing 12.5mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve.
Test aggregates are compacted in a cylindrical measure in three layers by tamping
each layer by 25 blows. The sample is transferred from the measure to cylindrical
steel cup of internal diameter 102mm and depth 50mm and compacted by tamping 25
times. The specimen is subjected to 15 blows with a hammer of weight 13.5 kg falling
through a height of 38cm. The test specimen is sieved on 2.36mm and the mass of
fines is determined. Aggregate impact value is determined as the percentage of fines
with respect to 2.36mm IS sieve to the total mass.

3.3.7 Aggregate Crushing Strength Test

The Aggregate crushing strength test is conducted as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) - 1963
and the sample consists of aggregates passing through 12.5mm and retained on 10mm
IS Sieve. The cylinder of the apparatus is filled in 3 layers, each layer tamped with 25
blows. The weight of aggregates is measured (Weight ‘A’). The surface of the
aggregates is then leveled and the plunger inserted. The apparatus is then placed in the
compression testing machine and loaded at a uniform rate so as to achieve 40 ton load
in 10 minutes. After this, the load is released and the sample is then sieved through a
2.36mm IS sieve and the fraction passing through the sieve is weighed (Weight ‘B’).

3.3.8 Aggregate Specific Gravity Test

The aggregate specific gravity test is conducted as per IS: 2386 (Part III) - 1963. The
aggregate sample is washed thoroughly and then placed in the wire basket and
immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22° to 32°C with a cover of at
least 50mm of water above the top of the basket. After immersion the entrapped air is
removed from the sample by lifting the basket containing it 25mm above the base of
the tank and allowing it to drop 25 times at the rate of about one drop per second. The
basket and the aggregate are completely immersed in water for a period of 24 hours.
The basket and the sample are then weighed while suspended in water at a
temperature of 22° to 32°C. This weight is noted while suspended in water W1 g.

The basket and the aggregate are removed from water and the aggregates are
transferred to one of the dry absorbent clothes. The empty basket is then returned to
the tank of water, jolted 25 times and weight in water W 2 g. The aggregates placed on
the absorbent clothes are surface dried till no further moisture is removed by this
37
cloth. Then the aggregates are transferred to the second dry cloth spread in a single
layer, covered and allowed to dry for at least 10 minutes until the aggregates are
completely surface dry. The surface dried aggregate is then weighed W 3 g. The
aggregate is placed in a shallow tray and kept in an oven maintained at a temperature
of 110°C for 24 hours. It is then removed from the oven, cooled in an airtight
container and weighed W4 g. Finally the specific gravity is determined by using
pycnometer with water as pore fluid.

3.3.9 Los Angeles Abrasion Test

Abrasion value of the aggregate sample is determined by conducting Los angeles

abrasion method as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) - 1963. Sample material of size 10mm to
20mm and mass of 4.6 kg is placed in the machine along with abrasive charge (11
number of cast iron spheres of 48mm diameter and having a mass of 390g to 445g).
The machine is operated at a speed of 30 revolutions per minute with 500 revolutions.
The abraded aggregate is sieved through 1.7mm IS sieve to find the mass of abraded
material. Abrasion value is determined as the ratio of mass of material passing
through 1.7mm IS sieve to the initial mass of sample, expressed as percentage.

3.3.10 Aggregate Shape Tests

Flakiness Index

It is determined by using thickness gauge. The test is performed as per IS: 2386
(Part I) - 1963. The material is separated into different size groups as per the material
from each group is assessed for flaky particles by making the material to pass through
the designed slot (the width of slot is 0.6 times the mean dimension). The mass of
waste material passing through different slots is added and divided by the total mass
of material to get flakiness index.

Elongation Index

It is determined by using length gauge. The test is performed as per IS: 2386 (Part I) -
1963. The material is separated into different size groups and the material from each
group is assessed for elongated particles by making the material to pass through the
designed slot (the length of slot is 1.8 times the mean dimension). The mass of waste
material retained on different gauge length are added and divided by the total mass of
material to get the elongation index.

38
3.3.11 Bitumen Specific gravity Test

The bitumen specific gravity test is conducted as per IS: 1202 - 1978. A clean and dry
specific gravity bottle along with stopper is taken and weighed. Specific gravity bottle
is filled with freshly boiled water and the stopper is inserted firmly and the same is
kept in the water bath maintained at a temperature of 27.0 + 1 oC for not less than half
an hour and weighed. Now weigh the specific gravity bottle about half-filled with the
material alone. Now, weigh the specific gravity bottle about half-filled with the
material and the other half with distilled water. Finally, weigh the specific gravity
bottle completely filled with the material alone.

3.4 COST EFFECTIVE METHODS EMPLOYED IN PAVEMENT

CONSTRUCTION

The concept of incorporating layers of elements to reinforce construction materials

has been in vogue for years and can be seen evidently even today with its wide usage
in highway alignments, building sites and residential communities. Most of the
flexible pavement components construction is based on the better interlocking and
binding of materials which in turn reinforce the index and engineering properties of
individual layers. This kind of stabilization significantly strengthens all the materials
used in the construction and allow them to have more flexibility in the degree of
service. The key benefits of above said mechanism are

 Economical construction techniques

 Improved index and engineering properties of materials used in construction
 Improved performance of in-situ soils
 Minimization of land acquisition
 Reduced construction time etc.

3.4.1 Crusher Dust at Sub-grade

Highway construction progresses in stages with a vertical hierarchical fashion,

beginning with the sub-grade. For various reasons, it is desirable to use naturally
occurring soils for sub-grade material but in some cases this is not possible due to the
poor and inferior soil conditions and thus in order to avoid realignment and it is
necessary to improve the sub-grade material. This very sub-grade can be
modified/fully replaced by using industrial waste like crusher dust in a more effective

39
manner. In the present study the crusher dust is fully replaced with conventional soil
as per the MoRT&H guide lines of soil stabilization. The sample collected for testing
purpose is shown in Fig. 3.10.

Figure 3.10 Crusher Dust Sample

3.4.2 rusher Dust, Crushed Stone and Ground granulated waste tyre at Sub- base
Course
To handle the plasticity development characteristics of the soil in the long run and to
smoothly transfer the stresses to the subsequent layer with an intention of reducing the
deformations apart from extracting the fullest advantage of the crusher dust gradation
characteristics, at the sub-base level, crusher dust is first tried with aggregate, then
crusher dust is tried with ground granulated waste tyre and finally the crusher dust is
tried with the combination of aggregate and ground granulated waste tyre.

One of the most important characteristics of tyre shreds is their lower specific gravity.
When roads are constructed across soft, weak and compressible soils, stability and
settlement are considered to be the critical concern of any pavement engineer. The
main advantage of using tyre shreds as a light weight fill material in high way
constructions as a backfill material is that tyre shreds are non-biodegradable and are
thus more durable. Since tyre shreds are light in weight, the excessive strain induced
in the individual layers comprising the mixture of soil and tyre shreds is less when
compared to the individual layers of conventional pavement where soil is the only
backfill material. In addition, tyre shreds are free draining materials, and thus do not

40
develop excess pore water pressures that cause stability problems during loading of
the pavement components. It has also been observed that the impact of the
construction of flexible road pavement components with tyre shreds or tyre shred-
sand mixtures on the ground water and air quality is negligible. In the present study
the Ground granulated waste tyre is mixed with crushed stone and crushed dust with
percentages of 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5% and 3% as per the MoRT&H guide
lines. The ground granulated waste tyre used in the study has been shown in
Fig. 3.11.

Figure 3.11 GGWT Sample

3.4.3 Crusher Dust, Crushed Stone and Crumb Rubber Waste Tyre at Base Course
Improper gradation of the base course will lead to the failure of the pavement in many
ways and to avoid this situation wet mix macadam (WMM) has been tried in the base
course with the addition of crumb rubber waste tyre to the crushed stone and crusher
dust. Crumb rubber waste tyre with percentages of 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5%.
The aggregate and crumb rubber waste tyre used in the study has been shown in Fig.
3.12, 3.13 respectively.

41
 Figure 3.12 Aggregate Sample

Figure 3.13 CRWT Sample

3.4.4 Polyethylene, Styrene Butadiene Styrene at Surface course

Branched polyethylene is the first commercial ethylene polymer designated as low-

density or high pressure material. The properties such as stiffness, hardness, chemical
resistance, softening temperature increases with increasing density or decreasing
amount of short chain branching in the polymer.

Styrene block copolymers, commonly termed thermoplastic rubbers due to their

ability to combine both elastic and thermoplastic properties, can be produced by a
sequential operation of successive polymerization of styrene butadiene styrene. SBS
copolymers derive their strength and elasticity from physical cross-linking of the
molecules into a three-dimensional network.

Polyethylene is a plastomer where as styrene butadiene styrene is an elastomer whose

properties are tend to change due to their interchangeable properties with the addition
of modifiers. Polyethylene and styrene butadiene styrene are used as modifiers for
assessing their compatibility with the conventional bitumen in the process of
improving their engineering as well as mechanical properties. In the present study the
polyethylene and styrene butadiene styrene are mixed with conventional soil with
different percentages of 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% etc as per the MoRT&H guide lines of

42
bitumen binder modification.

Chapter – 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 GENERAL

Experimental procedures adopted for testing the materials used in this research work
are narrated elaborately in the previous chapter. In this chapter, the results and
discussions of the laboratory tests performed on conventional and industrial wastes
are presented pavement components wise from sub-grade to surface course.

4.2 SUB-GRADE

4.2.1 Introduction

Rapid industrialization and urbanization, demand huge quantities of infrastructural

facilities such as roads, buildings etc. Roads are the cheapest mode of transportation
to carry men and material from one place to the other. The life of a flexible pavement
primarily depends on the performance of its component layers and mainly on the
foundation layer that is sub-grade. Usually sub-grades are natural soil grounds or
prepared grounds from natural soils and majority of the pavements have failed due to
weak sub-grades such as loose deposits, marshy, swampy and expansive and other
problematic grounds etc causing excessive deformation and settlements under
repeated traffic loads. Hence insufficient strength at saturated condition causes
bearing capacity failure (shear failure) in the sub-grade soil. In considering the above
and to avoid the thrust on natural soil resources, to increase the life of the pavement
and bulk utilization of crusher dust an industrial waste obtained from crushing stone
plants has been identified to use as sub-grade material in complete replacement of a
natural ground.

4.2.2 Materials

To study crusher dust as a sub-grade material, it was obtained from local crushing
stone plant in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India.

4.2.2.1 Gradation Characteristics

43
Gradation of crusher dust was done on oven dried sample as per IS: 2720 (Part IV)-
1985 and the results are shown in Table 4.1, 4.2 and Fig. 4.1.

44
Table 4.1 Grain size distribution Table 4.2 Gradation parameters

Particle Size (mm) % Finer Parameter Value

10.0 100 D 10 0.080
4.75 97 D 15 0.095
2.36 90 D30 0.200
2.00 88 D 50 0.260
1.18 80 D 60 0.5
0.60 65 D 80 1.65
0.425 56 D 85 2.30
0.30 44 D 90 3.4
0.15 26 Coefficients
0.075 6 Coefficient of
6.25
0.05 0 Uniformity (Cu)
Coefficient of
1.0
Curvature (Cc)

Figure 4.1 Grain Size Distribution Curve

From the gradation test data it is identified that crusher dust has a gravel size fraction
(> 4.75 mm) of 3% , coarse sand size fraction (4.75 mm – 2.00 mm) of 9 %, medium
sand size fractions (2.00 mm – 0.425 mm) of 32% and fine sand size fractions (0.425
mm – 0.075 mm) of 50% and silt sizes of 6% (< 0.075 mm) and the maximum size is
7.0mm and minimum size is 0.05 mm and its effective size (D10) as
45
0.08 and mean size(D50) as 0.360 mm. It is also identified that the gradation
coefficients i.e. Coefficient of Curvature as 1.0 and Coefficient of Uniformity as 6.25.
Based on IS: 1498(1970) it is classified as well graded material with sandy nature and
identified with a symbol of SW.

4.2.2.2 Consistency Limits as per IS: 2720 (Part V) - 1985

When the crusher dust sample was subjected to Uppal's cone penetration test as per
IS:2720 (Part VII) - 1980 the water content at 25 mm penetration is not possible to
determine and rolling of these particles to attain 3 mm diameter threads for plastic
limit was also not possible. By nature crusher dust is a residue of crushed stone after
making required sizes which is crystalline and similar to sand characterization.

4.2.2.3 Compaction characteristics as per IS: 2720 (Part VIII) - 1983

Modified proctor compaction test was performed as per IS: 2720 (Part VIII) - 1983
and the results are shown in Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.2. It was identified that crusher dust
attained minimum and maximum dry densities at 1.84 g/cc and 2.04 g/cc with respect
to their moisture contents of 4.5% and 11.0% respectively. It is seen that high dry
densities were obtained with wider range of moisture contents. High maximum dry
density is due to effective replacement of formed voids by lower sizes of crusher dust
particles by attaining dense condition and well graded nature and type of parent rock
material.

Table 4.3 Compaction characteristics

Water content (%) Dry density (g/cc)

2.0 1.89

4.5 1.84

11.0 2.04
18 1.82

Figure 4.2 Water content Vs Dry density

46
4.2.2.4 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) as per IS: 2720 (Part XVI) - 1987

The collected crusher dust sample was tested for California Bearing Ratio confirming
to IS: 2720 (Part XIV) - 1987 and it attained a CBR value of 11%.

4.2.2.5 Geotechnical properties of crusher dust (physical and engineering

properties)

The representative crusher dust was dried and tested for geotechnical
characterizations such as gradation, consistency, compaction and strength etc. as per
IS: 2720.

The physical appearance of crusher dust is light grey colour, crystalline texture and
porous nature and has specific gravity of 2.65. Based on the tests conducted on
crusher dust the following physical and engineering properties are shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Physical and Engineering properties of Crusher dust

Property Value
Grain size distribution:
Gravel sizes (%) 3
Sand sizes (%) 91
Fines sizes (%) 6
a. Silt sizes (%) 6
b. Clay sizes (%) 0
Consistency:
Liquid Limit (%) Non - plastic
Plastic Limit (%) Non - plastic
I.S Classification SW
Specific gravity 2.65
Compaction characteristics:
Optimum moisture content (OMC) (%) 11.0
Maximum dry density (MDD) (g/cc) 2.04
Shear strength parameters:
Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu) 6.25
Coefficient of Curvature (Cc) 1.0
Coefficient of permeability (cm/sec) 6.3*10-3
CBR:
Soaked California Bearing Ratio, CBR (%) 11

47
In studying physical and engineering properties of crusher dust it is identified that it is
a coarse grained material with rough texture, porous and non-plastic and attained high
dry densities (1.84-2.04 g/cc) with wider variation of moisture contents (4.5-11.0%)
and high CBR value (11%). It's characteristics are similar to sand particles and can be
used as partial or full replacement of sand particles.

4.2.3 Effect of sizes with respect to gradation on engineering properties of Crusher

dust
To study the influence of sizes of crusher dust particles with respect to gradation
on engineering properties like OMC, MDD and CBR of the crusher dust it was
graded into coarse sand sizes (4.75mm-2.0mm), medium sand sizes (2.0mm-
0.425mm) and fine sand sizes (0.425mm-0.075mm) as per IS:2720 (Part IV). These
were mixed at different proportions and varying from 100% to 0% and vice- versa and
are listed in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Different percentage sizes of Crusher dust

Coarse sand sizes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(CS) (%)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Medium sand sizes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(MS) (%)
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Fine sand sizes 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

(FS) (%) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

These proportions were subjected to compaction characteristics as per IS: 2720 (Part
VIII) - 1983, California Bearing Ratio test as per IS: 2720 (Part XVI) - 1987 and
corresponding OMC, MDD and CBR values are as shown below in Table 4.6.

48
 Table 4.6 Compaction and CBR characteristics of crusher dust

Mix CS (%) MS (%) FS (%) OMC (%) MDD (g/cc) CBR (%)
1 0 0 100 14.00 1.80 8.00
0 10 90 13.50 1.82 8.50
0 20 80 13.00 1.84 9.00
0 30 70 12.60 1.86 10.00
0 40 60 12.30 1.88 10.00
0 50 50 12.00 1.89 11.00
0 60 40 11.50 1.90 10.50
0 70 30 11.00 1.89 10.00
0 80 20 10.40 1.88 9.00
0 90 10 9.80 1.86 8.50
0 100 0 9.40 1.85 8.00
2 5 0 95 13.60 1.82 8.00
5 5 90 13.40 1.83 8.50
5 10 85 13.20 1.84 9.00
5 15 80 13.00 1.86 9.50
5 20 75 12.70 1.88 10.00
5 25 70 12.50 1.89 10.50
5 30 65 12.30 1.90 11.00
5 35 60 12.00 1.92 11.50
5 40 55 11.80 1.93 12.00
5 45 50 11.60 1.94 12.50
5 50 45 11.50 1.95 13.00
5 55 40 11.20 1.96 13.50
5 60 35 11.00 1.96 13.50
5 65 30 10.70 1.95 12.00
5 70 25 10.40 1.94 11.50
5 75 20 10.00 1.93 11.00
5 80 15 9.60 1.93 10.50
5 85 10 9.40 1.92 10.00
5 90 5 9.20 1.91 9.50
5 95 0 9.00 1.90 9.00
3 10 0 90 13.20 1.88 8.50
10 10 80 12.80 1.90 9.00
10 20 70 12.50 1.92 10.00

49
Mix CS (%) MS (%) FS (%) OMC (%) MDD (g/cc) CBR (%)
10 30 60 12.00 1.94 11.00
10 40 50 10.50 1.97 12.50
10 50 40 10.20 1.96 12.00
10 60 30 9.80 1.95 11.00
10 70 20 9.50 1.94 10.50
10 80 10 9.30 1.92 10.00
10 90 0 9.20 1.90 9.00
4 15 0 85 12.80 1.87 8.50
15 5 80 12.60 1.89 9.00
15 10 75 12.40 1.90 9.50
15 15 70 12.20 1.92 10.00
15 20 65 12.00 1.94 10.50
15 25 60 11.80 1.96 11.00
15 30 55 11.50 1.97 11.50
15 35 50 11.30 1.98 12.00
15 40 45 11.00 2.00 13.00
15 45 40 10.80 1.99 12.50
15 50 35 10.60 1.98 12.00
15 55 30 10.30 1.96 11.50
15 60 25 10.00 1.95 11.00
15 65 20 9.60 1.93 10.50
15 70 15 9.30 1.92 10.00
15 75 10 9.00 1.90 9.50
15 80 5 8.60 1.88 9.00
15 85 0 8.40 1.86 8.50
5 20 0 80 12.20 1.92 9.00
20 10 70 11.80 1.94 9.50
20 20 60 11.40 1.97 12.00
20 30 50 11.00 1.99 14.00
20 40 40 10.70 2.01 15.00
20 50 30 10.20 1.98 12.50
20 60 20 9.60 1.96 11.50
20 70 10 9.20 1.94 10.00
20 80 0 8.80 1.92 9.50
6 25 0 75 11.50 1.90 9.00

50
Mix CS (%) MS (%) FS (%) OMC (%) MDD (g/cc) CBR (%)
25 5 70 11.60 1.92 10.00
25 10 65 11.70 1.94 11.00
25 15 60 11.80 1.96 12.00
25 20 55 12.00 1.97 13.00
25 25 50 12.00 1.98 13.00
25 30 45 11.80 1.99 14.00
25 35 40 11.60 2.00 14.00
25 40 35 11.40 2.01 15.00
25 45 30 11.20 2.02 15.00
25 50 25 11.00 2.00 14.00
25 55 20 10.70 1.98 13.00
25 60 15 10.30 1.96 12.00
25 65 10 9.80 1.94 11.00
25 70 5 9.20 1.92 10.00
25 75 0 8.60 1.90 9.50
7 30 0 70 11.00 1.95 9.50
30 10 60 10.80 1.98 12.00
30 20 50 10.50 2.00 14.00
30 30 40 10.30 2.01 15.00
30 40 30 10.00 2.02 15.00
30 50 20 9.60 2.00 13.00
30 60 10 9.00 1.95 10.00
30 70 0 8.50 1.94 11.00
8 35 0 65 10.50 1.94 9.00
35 5 60 10.60 1.95 10.00
35 10 55 10.70 1.97 11.00
35 15 50 10.80 1.98 12.00
35 20 45 10.90 2.00 13.00
35 25 40 11.00 2.02 14.00
35 30 35 11.00 2.03 14.00
35 35 30 10.80 2.02 15.00
35 40 25 10.60 2.01 14.00
35 45 20 10.30 2.00 14.00
35 50 15 10.00 1.98 13.00
35 55 10 9.50 1.96 12.00

51
Mix CS (%) MS (%) FS (%) OMC (%) MDD (g/cc) CBR (%)
35 60 5 8.80 1.94 10.00
35 65 0 8.20 1.92 9.00
9 40 0 60 9.80 1.97 11.00
40 10 50 9.60 1.98 12.50
40 20 40 9.40 2.00 14.00
40 30 30 9.20 2.00 14.00
40 40 20 8.90 2.00 13.00
40 50 10 8.50 1.94 11.00
40 60 0 8.20 1.93 10.00
10 45 0 55 9.60 1.95 10.50
45 5 50 9.80 1.96 11.00
45 10 45 10.00 1.98 11.00
45 15 40 10.20 2.00 12.00
45 20 35 10.40 2.01 13.00
45 25 30 10.60 2.02 14.00
45 30 25 11.00 2.03 15.00
45 35 20 10.60 2.00 15.00
45 40 15 10.00 1.99 13.50
45 45 10 9.40 1.97 12.50
45 50 5 8.80 1.94 11.00
45 55 0 8.00 1.92 10.00
11 50 0 50 8.80 1.92 11.00
50 10 40 8.50 1.93 12.00
50 20 30 8.20 1.95 12.00
50 30 20 8.00 1.94 11.50
50 40 10 8.00 1.93 11.00
50 50 0 7.90 1.91 10.00
12 55 0 45 8.00 1.91 10.50
55 5 40 8.40 1.92 11.00
55 10 35 8.60 1.93 11.50
55 15 30 8.90 1.94 12.00
55 20 25 9.20 1.95 13.00
55 25 20 9.40 1.96 13.00
55 30 15 9.20 1.95 12.00
55 35 10 9.00 1.94 12.00

52
Mix CS (%) MS (%) FS (%) OMC (%) MDD (g/cc) CBR (%)
55 40 5 8.60 1.92 11.00
55 45 0 8.00 1.90 10.00
13 60 0 40 8.00 1.88 10.00
60 10 30 7.90 1.92 10.50
60 20 20 7.70 1.94 11.00
60 30 10 7.60 1.92 10.00
60 40 0 7.50 1.90 10.50
14 65 0 35 7.80 1.86 9.50
65 5 30 7.80 1.87 10.00
65 10 25 8.00 1.89 10.50
65 15 20 8.30 1.90 11.00
65 20 15 8.60 1.92 11.00
65 25 10 8.40 1.91 10.50
65 30 5 8.00 1.89 10.00
65 35 0 7.40 1.86 9.50
15 70 0 30 7.50 1.86 9.00
70 10 20 7.30 1.90 10.00
70 20 10 7.20 1.89 10.00
70 30 0 7.00 1.87 9.50
16 75 0 25 7.30 1.85 9.00
75 5 20 7.40 1.86 9.50
75 10 15 7.60 1.88 10.00
75 15 10 7.80 1.90 10.50
75 20 5 7.50 1.88 10.00
75 25 0 7.20 1.86 9.50
17 80 0 20 6.80 1.84 8.50
80 10 10 7.00 1.86 9.00
18 85 0 15 6.70 1.83 8.50
85 5 10 6.80 1.85 9.00
85 10 5 7.00 1.86 9.00
85 15 0 6.70 1.84 8.50
19 90 0 10 6.40 1.83 9.00
90 10 0 6.30 1.85 9.00
20 95 0 5 6.20 1.82 8.50
95 5 0 6.00 1.80 8.50

53
 Mix CS (%) MS (%) FS (%) OMC (%) MDD (g/cc) CBR (%)
21 10 90 0 9.20 1.90 9.00
20 80 0 8.80 1.92 9.50
30 70 0 8.50 1.94 11.00
40 60 0 8.20 1.93 10.00
50 50 0 7.90 1.91 10.00
60 40 0 7.50 1.90 10.50
70 30 0 7.00 1.87 9.50
80 20 0 6.80 1.86 9.00
90 10 0 6.30 1.85 9.00
100 0 0 6.00 1.82 8.00
22 10 0 90 13.20 1.88 8.50
20 0 80 12.20 1.92 9.00
30 0 70 11.00 1.95 9.50
40 0 60 9.80 1.97 11.00
50 0 50 8.80 1.92 11.00
60 0 40 8.00 1.88 10.00
70 0 30 7.50 1.86 9.00
80 0 20 6.80 1.84 8.50
90 0 10 6.40 1.83 9.00
100 0 0 6.00 1.82 8.00

From the test results it is identified that in the mixes where single sizes are
dominating, the maximum dry density and CBR values are decreasing. This
phenomenon is high in the mixes of fine sand sizes compared to medium and coarse
sand sizes of crusher dust particles. For these mixes the CBR values are in the range
of 8-10. High optimum moisture contents and less maximum dry densities and low
CBR values are due to poorly graded conditions and attainment of less dense packing
due to size, shape and porous nature of crusher dust particles.

In the mixes where two sizes are dominating, MDD and CBR values are increasing,
these are in the range of 10-12. High CBR values are observed with respect to
medium sand sizes and coarse sand sizes of crusher dust particles. This is due to
changing of gradations from poorly graded to well graded condition.

54
It is further identified that when the third size is also dominating in addition to other
two sizes or vice-versa, the MDD values are increasing and OMC values are decreasing
and high CBR (12-14%) values were obtained. This is due to formation of voids under
compaction can be filled by lower size particles giving well graded condition resulting
dense packing with high strengths. These are reflected in high maximum dry densities
and high CBR values. This character is more pronounced with respect to coarse sand
and medium sand sizes compared to fine sand sizes of crusher dust particles. This also
identifies that where these three sizes are more or less equally dominating with respect
to their composition very high MDD values (2.04 g/cc) and less OMC (10-11%) and
very high CBR values (14-15%) were obtained. When three sizes are equally or nearing
to equally dominating with respect to each other further reduction of formed voids
under well graded condition resulting very dense packing with high CBR values (14-
15%).

55
 Chapter - 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1.1 Conclusions

1) The crusher dust is a coarse grained material which has 90-100% particles less
than 4.75mm sizes which is non-plastic, porous, incompressible and attained
high CBR values greater than 10%.

2) Varying sizes of crusher dust and their proportions (0 to 100%) the CBR values
are in the range of 8-15%. Crusher dust dominated by single size has CBR
values of 8-10.5% due to poorly graded condition, more number of sizes
attained high CBR values in the range of 13-15% and also greater than 15% is
due to well graded and dense conditions. Filling up of voids by lower sizes of
crusher dust particles help to attain high CBR values.

56
3) Mixes of crushed stone (75mm-4.75mm) and crusher dust have attained CBR
values in the range of 110-138% can be used as base course material for high
volume traffic roads greater than 100 msa.
4) Mixes of crushed stone and crushed dust with partial replacement by 10mm,
20mm and 30mm crumb rubber waste tyre chips have attained CBR values in
the range of 108-142%, which are greater than crushed stone and crusher
dust mixes can be used in place of WMM layers. Inclusion of tyre chips
decreases the void space and make the mixes dense and cohesive.

5) Surface course with increased percentages of PE and SBS, penetration value

is continuously decreasing to 65.5 and 69.1mm. Softening point value is
continuously increasing to 61○C and 65○C. Ductility value is continuously
decreasing to 642 and 607mm. The Marshall stability value is increasing up to
4% of PE and for SBS it is continuously increasing. The flow value is decreasing
up to 4% of PE and SBS and beyond 4% it is decreasing. The above trends has
influenced the unit weight, voids in the total mix, maximum theoretical
density values as the mixtures elastic behavior has improved.

57
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 RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS

1. Arun Kumar.U, Satyanarayana,P.V.V (2016) "A Study on Impact of Industrial

Wastes Utilization as Granular Sub Base (GSB) Material in Flexible Pavement
Construction" IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE) e-ISSN:
2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 13, Issue 1 Ver.V, PP 40-45

2. Arun Kumar.U, Satyanarayana,P.V.V (2016) "A Study on Impact of Industrial

Wastes Utilization as Base Course Material in Flexible Pavement Construction"
International Journal of Advances in Engineering and Technology (IJAET) ISSN:
22311963 Vol. 9, Issue 1, pp. 25-31

3. Arun Kumar.U, Satyanarayana,P.V.V (2016) "Utilization of Crusher Dust and Ground

Granulated Waste Tyre as Sub base material" (Communicated for Publication)

4. Arun Kumar.U, Satyanarayana,P.V.V (2013), "Studies on Polymer Modified Bitumen

– A Laboratory Approach”. International Journal of Civil Engineering Research
(IJCER) Volume 4, Number 2, and PP: 123-134, ISSN NO: 2278-3652