Environ. Eng. Res.

2023; 28(4): 220249 pISSN 1226-1025

https://doi.org/10.4491/eer.2022.249 eISSN 2005-968X

Review

Solid Waste Management in India: A State-of-the-Art Review

Anunay A. Gour1, S. K. Singh2 , Anubha Mandal1
¹Department of Environmental Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India
²Rajasthan Technical University, Kota, India

Received June 8, 2022 Revised October 5, 2022 Accepted October 11, 2022 Corrected May 8, 2025

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the current scenario of solid waste management aspects and its challenges in India, which will benefit developing and
low-income countries. The leading cause of waste generation is the growing population and the new lifestyle due to the increased per capita
income. Consequently, the magnitude of solid waste is continuously growing along with its compositional diversity. In earlier days, the wastes
were organic and could be disposed of in low-lying areas conveniently without causing any adverse impact on the environment. But today,
the organic fraction of waste has steeply declined while the inorganic portion has increased manifold. Moreover, wastes from industries, hospitals,
construction sites, households, and many other sources severely affect the environment and public health. Also, the chemicals generated from
the improper disposal of these wastes enter the air, soil, and water resources, causing hazardous and toxic effects in countries that could not
implement the adopted policy framework strictly. A state-of-the-art review is conducted in this paper to further search other primary and
prevalent reasons behind the inability of proper waste management and to find a real solution.

Keywords: Challenges, Municipal solid waste, Solid waste management, State-of-the-art review, Waste characterization, Waste generation

Graphical Abstract

†
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ORCID: 0000-0001-8215-8562
Copyright © 2023 Korean Society of Environmental Engineers

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Anunay A. Gour and S.K. Singh

1. Introduction taken in India; Section 4. discusses the key challenges and tries
to find solutions for an efficient solid waste management paradigm
in India; Section 5. presents the detailed conclusion, and the
The improvement in people's living standards because of the in-
References are given at last in the paper.
dustrial revolution and economic development has entirely
changed their consumption patterns. But simultaneously, it has
created extreme complexity in solid waste management (SWM).
This altered lifestyle has brought a tremendous increase in the
2. State-of-The-Art Review on Solid Waste
share of the inorganic constituents in the wastes, due to which Management
the SWM has been severely affected and has become a global
problem today [1,2]. Presently, the waste disposal scenario has The state-of-the-art review presented in this paper tends to address
become a considerable threat compared to earlier times when more current matters in solid waste management in contrast to
the waste was primarily organic and could be safely disposed other combined retrospective and contemporary literature along
of in low-lying areas, assimilating into the natural biogeochemical with new perspectives on SWM and points out areas for further
cycles [3]. Moreover, the rapid increase in industrially-manufactured research, as depicted in the tables below. In order to have better
materials such as metals, glass, plastics, papers, rags, and poly- clarity and to grasp the matter at a glance, the significant con-
styrene has enhanced the share of inorganic wastes [4]. It has tribution of each study is concisely and precisely presented
brought several new solid wastes, such as municipal solid waste year-wise/criteria-wise/country-wise in Table 1., Table 2., and
from fruit and vegetable markets, gardens and parks, drain silt Table 3., along with a short description of gaps and novelty.
and street sweepings from the domestic areas, commercial sectors, A decadal highlight of literature presented in Table 1. points
and common spaces [5-9]; construction and demolition waste from toward increasing population, urbanization, industrialization, and
stones and bricks, reinforcement steel, and infrastructure-building improvement in the standard of living as factors behind increasing
activities [10-12]; biomedical waste from used/expired drugs and solid waste generation. Recent advancements in solid waste direct
medical instruments, tissues and organs generated from healthcare administrative attention toward the role of public-private
and veterinary establishments [13-15]; E-waste generated from the partnerships. It identifies numerous blockades to effective MSW
disposal of end-of-life electronic equipment [16]; industrial waste management. It shows that even small steps, such as segregation
from various industrial manufacturing centers [17-20]; special at source, can significantly determine the feasibility of employing
waste toxic and hazardous wastes from households, and trading waste-to-energy plants. This may reduce greenhouse gas emissions
zones [21-23]. The significant causes of the rise in these manufac- and provide sustainable logistics and waste transport solutions.
tured materials are the expanding urban areas, rising consumerism, Modelling resources and wastes considering their lifecycles is an-
and the exponentially growing population and their varying other holistic way to determine their reusability and potential
activities. These factors not only affect a particular area or a country for recycling and material recovery. Implementing a systems ap-
but also have made solid waste generation (SWG) a worldwide proach in MSWM will consider not only the individual components
problem [24-27]. but also their interaction, their effect on the environment, and
Almost all the countries of the World are undergoing an intense that of the environment on the MSWM system. Application of
struggle but still have failed to find a proper and effective solution geographically and topographically relevant technology based on
to manage waste. However, a few developed countries like the existing condition of an area can efficiently optimize, consider-
Germany, Italy, Canada, and Australia have effectively addressed ing the MSW management processes as a system. It may benefit
this issue. But the rest of the World, including numerous developing the management agencies to form better policies, solve imminent
and under-developed countries, is still establishing the basic infra- and long-term issues, and improve the health of the environment.
structure, let alone managing solid waste. Therefore, this paper This points toward increasing population, urbanization, in-
extensively reviews the work done globally in this field and finds dustrialization, and improvement in the standard of living as factors
a feasible solution to India’s SWM condition. A practical solution behind increasing solid waste generation. Recent advancements
for managing solid waste in India can lead the developing and in solid waste direct administrative attention toward the role of
under-developed countries of the World, as India shares 17.5% the public-private partnerships. It identifies numerous blockades
of the World’s population and is the 2nd most populous country. to effective MSW management. It shows that even small steps
Moreover, India has more than 1.4 billion people spread over such as segregation at source can significantly determine the feasi-
3.3 million sq. km, approximately 2.4% of the World's terrestrial bility of employing waste-to-energy plants. This may reduce green-
area. house gas emissions and provide sustainable logistics and waste
In addition to the introduction given in Section 1., the rest transport solutions. Modelling resources and wastes considering
of the paper is organized as follows - Section 2. presents a cri- their lifecycles is another holistic way to determine their reusability
teria-based state-of-the-art review of the solid waste management and potential for recycling and material recovery. Implementing
processes employed in India along with an outlook of solid waste a systems approach in MSWM will consider not only the individual
management practices globally; Section 3. deals with the present components but also their interaction, their effect on the environ-
scenario of solid waste management including the framework of ment, and that of the environment on the MSWM system.
MSWM, the trend of waste generation in various cities, the composi- Application of geographically and topographically relevant tech-
tion of waste, it also discusses the status of waste processing under- nology based on the existing condition of an area can efficiently

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 Environmental Engineering Research 28(4) 220249

Table 1. A summary of research paper studies that covered solid waste management
Year Highlights Ref.
2022 Proper engagement of the private sector in SWM can create sustainable circumstances. Education and awareness [28]
are crucial for household waste management and new approaches.
2021 The life cycle approach can close the gap between solid waste management in metropolitan and regional cities. [29]
And waste-to-energy significantly reduces GHG emissions and particulate matter.
2020 The fuzzy Delphi method identified 146 barriers to attaining sustainable SWM. The most significant ones are household [30]
hazardous waste, inadequate research capital, local architecture, lack of staff capability, and standard processes.
2019 A strong correlation exists between geographical position and economic status with waste characteristics. It also [31]
undertakes LCA models to select appropriate waste management algorithms to evaluate and find a sustainable solution.
2018 The rapid increase of solid waste is due to population increase, urbanization, rapid industrialization, and economic [32]
sustainability.
2017 The model was generated utilizing TOPSIS in the GIS environment to develop a suitability indicator for siting the [33]
units to minimize fixed and transportation costs and maximize the system's suitability.
2016 Greenhouse gas emissions could be reduced by applying the proper framework of SWM, such as waste-to-energy [34]
and material recovery, instead of landfilling.
2015 Systems engineering approaches such as systems engineering, industrial ecology, integrated solid waste management [35]
strategies, integrated systems planning, design and management, and uncertainty analysis shall be applied to SWM.
2014 Multiple methods for decision-making regarding waste management suggest direction by mass-balance approach, [36]
goal-oriented evaluation, and transparent and reproducible presentation of the methodology, data, and results.
2013 Urbanization, economic growth, inequality, institutional issues, governance, policy, international influences, and cultural [37]
and socio-economic aspects are the factors that have complicated the SWM in developing countries.
2012 All the SWM aspects shall be examined for health and safety, environmental issues, and disaster-prone/affected [38]
areas.

Table 2. A criteria-based summary of recent solid waste management studies

Study Criteria Objective and key findings
Management Waste management systems must be continually improved; waste diversion indicators analyze waste management
and create a framework and an easy-to-use metric for improving waste management efficiency [39]. Innovation
in SWM shall extend to product, organization, and process innovation in the disposal segment [40].
Framework Creating avenues for the circular economy through recovering and recycling materials from solid waste, similar
to the developed countries, may help achieve climate change and sustainable development goals [41]. Literature
finds that clear laws, regular public campaigns, and fee methodology are pillars of effective SWM [42]. Also,
as involvement in social community activities, education level, and per capita expenditure [43].
Awareness Public perception and willingness to pay for solid waste management have been highlighted as significant impediments
to the effective collection, segregation and processing of solid waste [44,45]. A unique study aimed at raising
awareness of SWM through formal education and gauging the gap in knowledge and attitude of students and
teachers revealed that students have a positive attitude and high understanding of environmental issues. In contrast,
there is a gap in teachers' practical knowledge and education to implement SWM [46].
Generation The waste generation shall be studied along with analyzing economic, social and population indicators [47]. In
addition to the inherent difficulties in MSWM operations, infrastructure, finance, and improper implementation
of policies are among the significant challenges in SWM in India [48]. Another study finds a correlation between
geographical position and economic status with waste characteristics. It also undertakes LCA-based models to
select appropriate waste management algorithms to evaluate and find a sustainable solution [31].
Collection The relation between distance travelled, working time, and waste collection system can be used to improve the
solid waste management system, develop an effective solid waste collection system, and optimize the map of
recycling stations in urban settings [49]. Clustering is also one of the potent optimization modelling to enhance
solid waste collection [50]. These can provide appropriate collection plan, route map and usage of geo-positional
attributes for optimal routing and improved efficiency and offers significant savings in time, labor, and pathways.

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Anunay A. Gour and S.K. Singh

Table 2. Continue
Study Criteria Objective and key findings
Segregation Multi-criteria decision analysis aimed at assessing and comparing the sustainability of different waste management
schemes finds that a door-to-door collection system (efficiency>80%) is far better than point collection (efficiency=35%)
in the segregated collection of waste [51]. Internet-of-Things has found its application in detecting the variation
in relative humidity in the presence of wet waste, helping to monitor waste bin status regularly [52].
Characterization Waste broadly includes plastics, paper, diapers, LDPE, plastic bags, glass, pharmaceuticals, and organic material
[53]. Organic waste constitutes the primary category (57%) at pilgrimage events, indicating energy conversion
potential [54]. Several pieces of literature signify characterizing as the first step to a successful SWM. Artificial
intelligence and machine learning approaches can investigate the impact of seasonal variation on the characterization
of MSW [55].
Minimization Life-cycle analysis of hospitality solid waste management can result in cost avoidance, enhance consumer image
and employee morale, and reduce environmental impacts [56]. Open dumping of the increasing MSW in Thailand
has led to various problems associated with solid waste, including the emission of greenhouse gas. A report intends
to ascertain the influencing factors and ways to reduce the per capita generation of MSW [57].
Storage The location of solid waste storage based on the number of stations, maximum walking distance, and container
capacity improves waste storage services [58]. The storage capacity of landfills can be effectively increased by
increasing storage height, but it can cause leachate-induced slope instability [59].
Transport Vehicle routing optimized for travel duration and path strengthens the triple bottom line of sustainability and
improves the solid waste management framework [60]. Another study points out that with no marginal increase
in cost, the transportation model based on locational planning of MSWM systems shows considerable savings
in CO2 emission [61].
Treatment Composting is an economical, sustainable, and environmentally benign alternative for treating organic constituents
[62]. A study develops a multi-objective optimization model to select optimum technological solutions for MSW;
with the help of this decision support system, sludge co-processing can be promoted for managing solid waste [63].
Recycling Stone-cutting waste can be recycled as a feasible replacement for aggregates in construction, concerning cost
reduction in storage and disposal [10]. Several countries are striving hard to inculcate a culture of recycling
in the day-to-day life of people and reduce the magnitude of solid waste reaching open dumping sites.
Disposal High concentrations of heavy metals such as Cu, Mn, Fe, Cr, Pb, Co, Zn, and Ni in groundwater near waste
dumping areas. Advances in disposal technology, such as bioreactor landfills and improved liner materials, may
help prevent contaminants in the environment [64]. The prevalence of open burning, dumping, management,
treatment and disposal of solid waste in Bangladesh has also been documented [65].
Impact Using artificial intelligence to gauge the temporal variation in waste characteristics can help predict and reduce
the impact of MSW by incorporating early sustainable waste management decisions [55]. The presence of odorous
compounds causes severe nuisance near and around MSW processing facilities due to the organic wastes' high
moisture content and perishability. After that, aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons have carcinogenic risks [66].
GHG Emission Sustainable circular waste management systems may contribute considerably to alleviating climatic heating by
reducing the emission of GHGs [67]. The Integrated SWM approach results in the maximum reduction of GHG
emissions compared to the recycling and incineration approaches [68]. Composting has been the best scenario
for the least GHG emission, whereas landfilling generated the most GHG, followed by open burning [69].
COVID-19 The recent COVID-19 pandemic has put massive pressure on solid waste management with its peculiar biomedical
waste. An enormous instability has been inducted into healthcare waste handling, recycling, treatment, and disposal
[70]. It has been found that the SARs-COV-2 virus, responsible for COVID-19, has more than 72 hrs. of stability
on plastics and steel compared to copper or cardboard [71]. The wastes produced during this period are bio-hazardous
and highly undesirable.
Waste-to-energy Estimating methane emissions and technical know-how for initiating landfill gas projects to extract energy needs
to be developed along with developing novel technologies for enhancing the energy content of waste. Along similar
lines, an article finds a novel approach for WTE by converting solid waste plastics into graphene nanosheets
to create high-performance supercapacitors [72]. An assessment links WTE resource potential to an area-based
prioritization framework for better performance [73]. Another article proposes the recovery of waste and energy
generation and urges the public authorities to invest more in WTE technologies to contribute to sustainable develop-
ment, economic growth, and ecological and environmental well-being [74].

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 Environmental Engineering Research 28(4) 220249

optimize, considering the MSW management processes as a system. time, resources, and adverse environmental impacts.
It may benefit the management agencies to form better policies, Similarly, the inclusion of socio-economic factors such as soci-
solve imminent and long-term issues, and improve the health ety, literacy rate, and awareness by public campaigns play a crucial
of the environment. role in improving solid waste management. Yet, few consider the
Table 2. presents a criteria-based summary of solid waste man- economic and social indicators, along with population indicators.
agement studies undertaken in the past five years. This categorical This increases the gap between the theory and practice of MSWM,
review informs the objectives and key findings in research areas causing inadequacy of infrastructure and finance. Moreover, the
that require more focus in the present times. It reveals that modern influence of geographical location and economic status on the
methods of continuous improvement of the management system changing solid waste characteristics remains unknown.
and holistic innovation through product, organizational, and proc-
ess innovations may fill the gap in the management of solid waste. 2.1. Solid Waste Management Worldwide Outlook
Advancing into a circular economy framework, a country benefits The various studies [3,25,27,75,76] conducted to determine the
by alleviating pressure on the environment and promoting sustain- trend of SWM worldwide show that the SWG increases following
able development. It also increases competition and stimulates the economic advancement of countries from low-income to
innovation in the field. The concept of a circular economy has high-income. Based on the data from a World Bank Report con-
the potential to boost the economic growth of a nation and save ducted on 192 countries [76], the statistical correlation of SWG

Table 3. A summary of solid waste management studies done in various countries

Economic
Year Criteria Issue addressed Place Country Ref.
Status
2022 Awareness Willingness-to-pay Hawassa Ethiopia LI [44]
2022 Characterization Variation of waste characteristics Johannesburg South Africa UMI [55]
2022 COVID-19 Emerging issues in SWM Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao Philippines LMI [77]
2022 Impact Impact assessment using multispectral Yenagoa, Bayelsa State Nigeria LI [78]
imagery
2022 Minimization Factors for reducing solid waste Shanghai China LMI [57]
2021 Characterization MSW Composition Analysis Nur-Sultan City Kazakhstan UMI [53]
2021 Collection Efficiency of collection Mexican Municipalities Mexico UMI [79]
2021 COVID-19 Effect of COVID-19 on SWM Brazil Brazil UMI [80]
2021 Framework Life cycle assessment for MSW New South Wales Australia HIC [81]
management
2021 Framework SWM at Ajmer, India Ajmer, Rajasthan India LMI [15]
2021 GHG Air pollution due to MSWM Accra Ghana [82]
2021 Management Agent-based modelling for eco-effective Norte Pioneiro Brazil UMI [83]
SWM
2021 Management Input-output indices for SWM Nova Scotia, Saskatchewan Canada HIC [39]
quantification
2021 Management Implementation analysis of SWM Ludhiana, Punjab India LMI [84]
2021 Management Life cycle cost analysis of MSWM Mumbai, Maharashtra India LMI [85]
2021 Management Management of SW at dumpsites Ibadan Nigeria LI [86]
2021 Management SWM at Papua New Guinea Lae City Papua New LMI [20]
Guinea
2021 Recycling Residential solid waste recycling Annaba Algeria LMI [87]
2021 Segregation Segregation at source and separate Hoi An Vietnam LI [49]
collection
2021 Treatment Composting of organic waste Al-Karak Jordan LMI [62]
2021 Waste-to-energy Solid waste fuel pellets Newai, Rajasthan India LMI [88]
2020 COVID-19 Effect of SWM on COVID-19 spread South Africa, Egypt, Morocco, Africa UMI, LI [89]
Algeria, Nigeria, Ghana,
Cameroon, Guinea, Ivory Coast,
Djibouti, Senegal, Tunisia,
Niger, Burkina Faso, DR Congo

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Anunay A. Gour and S.K. Singh

Table 3. Continue
Economic
Year Criteria Issue addressed Place Country Ref.
Status
2020 Framework Community participation for effective SWM Jakarta Indonesia LMI [43]
2020 Minimization Cost minimization Ankara Turkey UMI [61]
2019 Collection Efficiency of collection Bharatpur Nepal LI [90]
2019 Framework Applying sustainability to MSWM Mata de São João Brazil UMI [91]
2019 Framework Mathematical modelling for MSWM Istanbul Turkey UMI [92]
2019 Management Community-based SWM Nkulumane Suburb, Zimbabwe LI [93]
Bulawayo
2019 Waste-to-energy WTE at South Africa Johannesburg South Africa UMI [74]
2018 Collection Impact of tourism on waste collection Italian Municipalities Italy HIC [94]
2017 Characterization Evaluation of SWM Mohali & Panchkula, Punjab India LMI [95]
2017 Characterization MSW Composition Analysis Kerbala Iraq UMI [54]
2017 Characterization Waste generation & composition Lagos Nigeria LI [96]
2017 Management Biomedical waste management Francistown, Gaborone, Botswana UMI [97]
Selebi Phikwe, Lobatse, and
major villages
2017 Management Multi-dimensional modelling for Tehran Iran LMI [33]
integrated SWM
2016 GHG Greenhouse gas emissions from landfills Delhi India LMI [98]
2016 Waste-to-energy WTE and recycling value Lahore Pakistan LI [99]
2015 Generation Public perception hazards of MSWM West Bank, Gaza Strip Palestine LMI [100]
2014 Disposal Impact of landfilling on groundwater Kolhapur, Maharashtra India LMI [101]
2014 Framework MSWM system in a developing Dhaka, Chittagong, Khulna, Bangladesh LI [102]
country Rajshahi, Barisal, and Sylhet
2014 Framework SWM and Agenda 21 in Brazil Brazil Brazil UMI [103]
2014 Management SWM at Nairobi Nairobi Kenya LI [104]
2013 Awareness Willingness-to-pay Kolkata India LMI [105]
2013 Characterization MSW Composition Analysis Beijing China LMI [106]
2013 Disposal Route Optimization for MSW Gondia, Maharashtra India LMI [107]
disposal sites
2013 Management SWM at Delhi, India Delhi India LMI [108]
2012 Awareness Education and Awareness Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia UMI [109]
Malaysia
2012 Generation SWM at Bahrain Kingdom of Bahrain Bahrain HIC [110]
2012 Impact Landfill fires and their impacts Lagos Nigeria LI [111]
2012 Recycling Recycling solid waste Delhi India LMI [24]
2012 Recycling Sustainability in SWM Gianyar Indonesia LMI [112]
2011 Transport Collection route using GIS Nagpur, Maharashtra India LMI [113]
2010 Awareness Health issues of workers Cairo Egypt LMI [114]
2010 Awareness Segregation at source Mercato San Severino Italy HIC [115]
2009 Disposal Impact of disposal Ado-Ekiti Nigeria LI [116]
2008 GHG Greenhouse gas emissions from MSWM Chennai, Tamil Nadu India LMI [117]
2008 Management SWM at Karlsruhe City, Germany Karlsruhe City Germany HIC [118]
2007 Framework Optimizing Integrated solid waste Mumbai, Maharashtra India LMI [119]
management in India
2007 Minimization SWM and disposal emission inventory Bangkok Thailand LMI [120]

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 Environmental Engineering Research 28(4) 220249

was determined with the urban population and the total population 3.1. SWM Framework
of both urban and rural areas. It was found that the statistical
The Central Pollution Control Board and the State Pollution Control
correlation of the quantity of waste generated with the entire pop-
Boards/Committees impart environmental policy, pollution mon-
ulation was 0.6390, while that with the urban population was
itoring, and reporting at the central and state government levels.
0.8421. It shows that the statistical correlation with the urban
Municipal agencies/cantonment boards implement plans and rules
population is nearly 1.5 times more than that of the total population.
in the areas under their jurisdiction at the local level. They also
These figures demonstrate a notable trend of SWG, which increases
develop infrastructure for collection, segregation, transportation,
with the countries’ affluence. Still, the measures undertaken to
storage, treatment and processing, and solid waste disposal. India’s
improve the SWM are not up to the mark required for properly
Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules assign
disposing of the increased SWG. A summary based on different
citizens the duty to segregate waste at household levels. It also
criteria and issues of the SWM adopted by various countries is
gives strict adherence to avoiding littering streets and delivering
shown in Table 3. The economic condition of the nations, such
waste through the established delivery system notified by the civic
as low-income (LI), low-middle-income (LMI), upper-middle-in-
bodies [123]. The SWM model followed in India was simplistic
come (UMI), and high-income countries (HIC), is also shown in
and rudimentary. But, the recent integration of ideas such as reduce,
this table.
reuse, and recycle (3R) and material and energy recovery has sig-
nificantly improved the model, as observed in developed countries
[26,118,120,124-127].
3. Solid Waste Management in India
3.2. Solid Waste Generation
The present rate of SWG in India is 0.34 kg per capita per day,
Out of 28 states and 8 union territories (UT) of India, about 50%
which is expected to reach up to 0.7 kg per day by 2025 [76].
of its solid waste is generated by only five states/UT - Maharashtra,
However, this SWG rate is much lower than nearly 90% of countries
Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Gujarat, and NCT of Delhi. Generating
worldwide. But, due to the massive population, the total waste
more than 23000 TPD of solid waste, Maharashtra stands at the
generated in India is more than 168,403.24 TPD, because of which
top, followed by Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, with SWG of
India ranks seventh globally in SWG [121]. But it is forecasted
about 15,000 TPD each. States such as Andhra Pradesh, Delhi,
that by 2025, India may become a more significant waste generator
Gujarat, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu create more than 10,000 TPD.
than Germany, Japan, and Brazil, which are now at the 4th, 5th,
Fig. 2. shows the trend of SWG in India. Moreover, the more
and 6th rank, respectively [76]. The SWG will still increase in
affluent the economy of a particular state/UT, the more substantial
India because the linear projections show that India’s population
waste is likely to be generated. Maharashtra generates the highest
may grow to 2.6 billion in 2051, as presented in Fig. 1. The urban
amount of solid waste of all states and collects 99.3 % of its solid
population's present growth rate is 31.45%, which may increase
waste. It also utilizes more than 53% of the collected waste for
to 36% in 2051. In contrast, the rural population is 17.97% [122].
composting, recycling, and energy recovery. The remaining 47%
Moreover, the total number of urban agglomerations (UAs) and
of waste is sent to landfills. Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
towns may rise to more than 10,000 from 6166.
Karnataka, Manipur, Nagaland, and Puducherry collected around

Fig. 1. Trend of growth of UAs/Towns (on the right y-axis) and urban population (on the left y-axis) in India for census years 1901-2011 [122]
with linear projection till 2051.

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Anunay A. Gour and S.K. Singh

Fig. 2. Solid waste generation trend in India

80% of the solid waste generated and treated only 25% of waste. Fig. 3. in the grouped column and line chart shows the magnitude
Mumbai and Delhi produce more than 11,000 TPD of solid waste of SWG for 1999-2000, 2004-05, 2010-11, and 2015-16 in tons
at the city level. Only about 50% of solid waste is treated, and per day (TPD) by urban centers of India on the primary y-axis
the remaining 50% finds its way to landfills. Both mega-urban (on the left side). It also compares the trend with the cities' pop-
centers lack sanitary landfill facilities and rely on open dumping ulations in millions, scaled on the secondary y-axis (on the right).
of solid waste [108]. From 2009 to 2012, India produced 127485.107 It establishes the relationship between SWG and people. SWG
TPD of solid waste at 0.17 to 0.76 kg/capita/day for Tier I, II, has been increasing consistently since yesteryears, with metropoli-
and III Indian cities [34,123,128]. According to the World Bank, tans such as Mumbai and Delhi leading in waste generation due
the average per capita waste generation is approximately 0.35 to their enormous population, immigration, and varied economic
to 0.4 kg/capita/day [76]. SWG increased by nearly 50% from 2001 activities. Kolkata and Bengaluru have rigorously controlled their
to 2011 [129]. SWM as waste generation has increased marginally from 1999-2000

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 Environmental Engineering Research 28(4) 220249

Fig. 3. Solid waste generation by Indian cities [122]

till 2015-16. Summarizing the magnitude of solid waste generated 3.3. Waste Composition
by cities classified based on their economic status as Tier I, II,
India’s solid waste differs significantly from Western countries
and III cities present a consistent trend in the solid waste generated
in its composition and hazards. The physical composition of India’s
by cities of various economic classifications. SWG directly relates
solid waste on a wet-weight basis includes (a) biodegradable organic
to a city's financial state [25]. The city’s economic condition: more
fraction (51.3±8.3%), (b) recyclables up to 17.48±5%, (c) the ash
is the quantity of solid waste generated. Mumbai & Delhi leads
content of 30-40%, (d) paper about 3-6%, and (e) inert such as
the Tier I cities by producing more than 7000 TPD and more
glass, plastic, and metals up to1-6% [128]. Characteristics of waste
than 11500 TPD in 2016. Amongst Tier-II cities, Chandigarh gen-
from 59 Indian cities classified based on population, as shown
erates the highest quantity of waste. Cities that generate more
in Table 4., ascertain the value of the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio
than 7000 TPD, i.e., Greater Mumbai and Delhi, lack sanitary
(C/N) of 31.91±26.68 low, the moderate calorific value of
landfilling facilities [130]. The population growth rate of urban
1751.20±782 kcal/kg [34,128]. Waste is often attributed to a mois-
zones is around 36.45%, which is more than twice the population
ture content of 46.76±13%, making the waste less feasible for
growth in rural areas (17.97%) [122]. Fig. S1. presents the relation-
energy recovery. High-income cities tend to produce more inorganic
ship between quantity of solid waste generated by Indian Cities
waste than organic ones. Solid waste from Tier III cities, i.e., the
vs their population graphed using curve fitting with 95% confidence
low per capita income cities, has higher calorific value waste than
bounds. This relation can be developed into a linear model as
other towns [34]. Hence, as a town gets economically advanced,
shown in Eq. (1).
the organic share of the waste reduces—consequently, the paper
and plastic component increases, which points toward consumer-
QSWG = 393.2 × P ‒111.2 (1)
ism in the urbanized areas.
where,
3.4. Status of Waste Processing
QSWG = quantity of solid waste generated in TPD,
P = population of a city in millions. 3.4.1. Waste minimization, recycling, and reuse
In India, an extensive informal and formal recycling network mini-

Table 4. Characteristics of waste from Indian cities classified with respect to their population (in millions)
Population Number of Waste
Waste Quantity Recyclable Moisture Compostable HCV
Range cities under Generation C/N Ratio
(TPD) (%) (%) (%) (Kcal/Kg)
(millions) Observation Rate (kg/c/day)
< 0.1 8 22.5 ± 23.1 0.4 ± 0.2 21.0 ± 4.9 26.2 ± 7.1 48.6 ± 12.7 51.7 ± 12.5 2161.0 ± 786.8
0.1 - 0.5 11 96.8 ± 65.2 0.4 ± 0.1 19.6 ± 6.6 26.4 ± 6.8 49.8 ± 11.9 51.2 ± 8.0 2162.3 ± 1079.9
0.5 - 1 16 328.1 ± 139.8 0.4 ± 0.2 16.2 ± 4.1 28.9 ± 10.7 47.7 ± 15.3 54.2 ± 9.0 1480.9 ± 560.2
1 - 2 11 480.8 ± 151.3 0.4 ± 0.1 17.2 ± 4.7 27.1 ± 11.4 40.7 ± 13.3 47.4 ± 4.7 1410.9 ± 711.9
2 - 3 6 859.7 ± 301.1 0.4 ± 0.1 13.8 ± 2.3 32.7 ± 9.0 47.0 ± 15.2 51.2 ± 6.8 1685.8 ± 754.9
3 - 10 5 2169.4 ± 705 0.5 ± 0.1 16.7 ± 5.2 30.3 ± 3.4 45.2 ± 8.3 47.8 ± 6.2 1866.0 ± 656.5
> 10 2 5621 ± 425.7 0.5 ± 0.1 16.1 ± 0.8 37.0 ± 2.9 51.5 ± 3.5 58.4 ± 5.7 1794.0 ± 11.3

9
Anunay A. Gour and S.K. Singh

b c

Fig. 4. Percentage of Solid waste collection, treatment, and disposal at landfills w.r.t Solid waste collected in India

mizes solid waste. The rag pickers collect metals, plastics, glass, solid waste. On average, 17% of all the waste generated in India
leather, rubber, textiles, paper/cardboard, and other recyclables. remains uncollected. Cities such as Mumbai, Delhi, and Hyderabad
Many households also sell recyclables to itinerant waste buyers. collected more than 90% of their solid waste and put it into the
The recyclable materials pass from the rag pickers or itinerant conventional waste processing method. Maharashtra state can col-
buyers to small waste dealers. After that, it reaches middle-level lect 99.3 % of its generated solid waste. Other states have not
dealers and finally reaches recycling units. End-users of cleaned fared well in collecting their solid waste. Regardless of the trend
and sorted recyclables are the recycling units or factories which of waste generation, the segregation of wastes is the bottleneck.
use these recyclables as raw materials for manufacturing a new In India, waste collection and segregation are carried out in the
product. On average, about 50.72% of the waste collected in India same instance. The onus lies with the citizen segregating and
is minimized, recycled, and reused. Hence, landfills are saved disposing of waste in the receptacles. However, some municipal
from being piled up with a large volume of garbage. Jharkhand, agencies also provide door-to-door collection and transport of waste
Uttar Pradesh, Goa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh / Telangana, to disposal sites by mini-dumpers. They utilize covered garbage
and Chhattisgarh recycle more than 90% of the waste collected. bins of 12 to 16 tons capacity and street dustbins in the societies.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Manipur, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Management of open areas for the storage of solid waste requires
and Delhi recycle just over 50% of the waste. The lowest amounts further efforts. Metal containers with color codes to help MSW
of waste recycling are observed in Haryana, Gujarat, Daman & segregation (green containers for biodegradable waste and blue
Diu, Meghalaya, Puducherry, and Odisha. Due to a lack of data, containers for non-biodegradable wastes) exist in most municipal
no observation could be made about states/UTs such as Arunachal areas. Municipal workers collect the waste from domestic and
Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, commercial spaces and bring it to the nearest waste receptacles.
Lakshadweep, Mizoram, and Uttarakhand. Major waste-producing The cantonment boards also have garbage collection points in
states shall coordinate and increase waste minimization, recycling, civilian and military areas. Street-sweeping in the military area
and reuse. A serious impetus is required to push the recycling is undertaken by the military, while sweeping in the civilian areas
sector of the blockages in India. Recycling is a dirty and unhygienic is conducted by the respective Cantonment Boards. A combined
activity; waste is often littered around the recycling units. Although community bins and door-to-door collection system is necessary
measuring the recycling sector's contribution to environmental to avoid street littering [131].
conservation is difficult to ascertain, it plays an essential role
in saving virgin materials. 3.4.3. Transport and transfer
Waste transportation is a significant part of municipal expenditure.
3.4.2. Collection, storage, and segregation of waste Door-to-door collection vehicles equipped with two color-coded
Despite the efforts to improve the waste collection mechanism, containers increase public awareness of segregation at the source.
more than half of the cities still fail to collect even 25% of their Municipal agencies across the country maintain a fleet of vehicles

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 Environmental Engineering Research 28(4) 220249

that collect MSW from waste receptacles and transport it to the straints; shortage of low-lying land for landfilling, and, most im-
disposal sites. The primary haulers are refuse removal trucks, portantly, lack of public awareness [115,118,124,127,139]. In India,
tractor-trailers, mini dumpers, loaders in urban areas, and carts solid waste management faces severe problems as only a fraction
in rural areas. Methods of transportation of MSW depend on the of the waste is disposed of appropriately. With numerous efforts,
type of collection points. The logistical system faces difficulty municipal agencies across India have increased waste collection
transporting solid waste and works at low efficiency. Besides, coverage. However, about 18% of the waste remains uncollected.
the uncovered truck is a nuisance in the city; they spread the A meagre amount of waste is processed and treated for recycling
garbage all along their way to landfill sites. The municipal agencies or energy recovery. Several landfill sites, including larger ones
carry out the MSW collection, transportation, disposal, and such as Ghazipur, Bhalswa, Okhla in Delhi, and Deonar in Mumbai,
treatment. Disposal trucks are adequately covered to prevent the have already reached their design life and are overflowing.
spreading of the collected waste on the streets. About three-fourths Developing and operating new landfill sites using the scientific
of expenditure in solid waste management is consumed against disposal method is challenging. Citizens should be aware of segre-
the collection and transportation of waste. Approximately Rs. 800 gating waste at the source, avoiding littering on roadsides, and
per ton ($10.45/ton) is spent on waste transportation in India. observing their duties towards the environment [25,131]. The in-
Hence, much focus is required to optimize the activity. Waste formal sector, including the rag-pickers, manages to recycle in
disposal routes shall be designed to achieve logistical efficiency the cities. It is essential to segregate recyclable solid waste compo-
and cost optimization. The transportation and logistics system nents from garbage bins and landfills [131]. Authorities have im-
for waste management needs significant overhauling using modern plemented policy measures to include the unorganized sector in
tools. Logistical models based on GIS suggest it improved overall solid waste management. It has increased waste collection and
efficiency and optimization of resources [132-135]. States like segregation and simultaneously solves logistical problems.
Delhi, Mumbai, and Ahmedabad are moving forward with a decen-
tralized approach to cutting transportation costs [27]. 4.1. Waste-to-Energy Conversion
3.4.4. Treatment and disposal The solid, liquid, and gaseous discharges from industrial processes
possess different WTE potential. Urban waste (solid and liquid
Almost 90% of landfills in India, including Ghazipur and Bhalswa
discharges), cattle farm (solid discharges), distillery (liquid dis-
in Delhi, and Deonar in Mumbai, do not have landfill liners and
charges), vegetable raw (solid discharges), poultry (solid dis-
lack leachate collection or re-circulation system [117,136]. The
charges), slaughterhouse (liquid discharges), paper (liquid dis-
disposed of MSW is spread evenly and compressed by a single
charges), fruit raw (solid discharges), sugar press mud (solid dis-
bulldozer movement and covered by soil and silt. Rag pickers
charges) are the top sectors in India with more than 5225 MW
also carry out their recycling operations at landfill sites. Animals
of WTE potential [140]. Until 2020, biogas generation projects
like vultures, pigs, cows, and dogs are common on the sites [137].
have been set up in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
A direct rational relation between the quantity of waste collected
Pradesh, and Telangana, generating a cumulative installed capacity
and waste sent to landfills is shown in Fig. 4. It also presents
of 37900 m3/day. States such as Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Punjab
an inverse relationship between solid waste treated and solid waste
have established 4 MW power projects based on WTE. Bio-CNG
generated. The more solid waste is collected, the more waste is
generation has increased with 25731 kg/day cumulative installed
sent to landfills. It points toward the inadequacy of treatment
capacity. Moreover, 139.80 MW grid-interactive and 114.93 MW
facilities in India. Only 26% of the collected solid waste undergoes
off-grid power projects are operational. Presently, 57426 m3 of
treatment. Lack of segregation primarily causes processing plants
biogas is generated per day from industrial units in Madhya Pradesh
for palletization and composting to work without adequate bio-de-
and Maharashtra from maize and starch processing. Ahmedabad
gradable waste. Modern, eco-friendly treatment technologies need
and Surat generate 8600 kg/day of Bio-CNG from vegetable waste,
more emphasis than incineration [138]. As a method of waste
hotel waste, cow dung, and sewage treatment plants. Wastes from
disposal, landfilling needs substantial efforts to prevent its threats.
gardens, poultry, animal husbandry, slaughterhouses, distillery,
An under-drainage system shall be available to provide efficient
sugar manufacture, dairy, oil refining, leather processing, food,
and adequate cover for the successive landfill layer with ventilation.
and food grain processing shall be employed aggressively for WTE.
Moreover, regular monitoring programs check greenhouse gas emis-
Self-sufficient industries shall be encouraged with in-house power
sions into the air and leachate into the water environment. Greening
generation from their wastes using WTE and other renewable energy
and covering the landfill limits the wastes from birds and scavengers
sources.
and prevent bio-magnification [108].

4.2. Greenhouse Gas Emission

4. Key Challenges and Solutions to Solid Waste India is a developing nation improving its technology and infra-
structure for waste-to-energy generation. Energy potential here
Management in India can increase by tapping gases such as methane emitted from
landfills. It can quickly and effectively be used as biogas for heat
Municipal facilities are improving, yet the most significant chal- and electricity generation. On the contrary, landfills are the major
lenge for effective municipal SWM in India lies with the weak contributor to methane emissions [98,117,137,141,142]. Landfill
organizational structure; unscientific methods, financial con- gas remains untapped as a potential source of energy. IPCC states

11
Anunay A. Gour and S.K. Singh

that 30% of the total GHG emission to the environment is from systems can be used to select an appropriate methodology for
landfills. Delhi contributes to 10% of the total methane emission waste treatment and save resources. Focus on environment-friendly
from MSW [4,34,143]. Further efforts are required to improve sus- ways such as composting shall be encouraged.
tainability and reduce GHG emissions [124]. IPCC reports the wor- GHG emissions can be reduced by enabling a circular econo-
sening of climate change issues [144]. my-based framework for industrialized products. The indirect caus-
es shall also be identified and addressed in addition to factors
4.3. Health Issues directly affecting GHG emissions. An integrated solid waste man-
The landfills’ wastes are mainly polymers, plastics, chemicals, agement approach is a strategic approach to sustainable manage-
electronic components, biomedical products, construction and ment of solid wastes covering all sources and all aspects, covering
demolition waste, household wastes, and many substances. generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery, and
Contaminants such as organic acids and heavy metals are proven disposal in an integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximizing
allergens, potential carcinogens, and toxic, causing acute and resource use efficiency, shall be implemented. Compared to in-
chronic ailments. Cancer, congenital disabilities, tumor formation, cineration and landfilling, simple and natural methods such as
reproductive defects, kidney problems, and cardiac, renal, and composting are the best at reducing GHG emissions. Employing
circulatory issues are known diseases handling solid wastes. There strategically placed storage areas of waste to facilitate quick loading
exists evidential proof that operators and manual workers suffer and disposal also affects the emission of GHGs. Another avenue
from acute toxicity to the kidney and nervous system [114]. Chronic to reduce the generation of GHG is recycling. Solid waste, whenever
diseases, such as cadmium poisoning and mercury poisoning, affect possible, shall be reused and recycled. Recycling of construction
the population engaged in solid waste management. Moreover, and demolition minimizes the requirement for virgin materials
the health risk is not limited to the landfill but extends to several to a great extent. India possesses a high potential for developing
kilometers from the landfill. Municipal workers and other commun- a culture of recycling in day-to-day life. GIS-based optimized rout-
ities associated with the handling of solid waste and management ing plan for the transport and transit of wastes proves to have
face respiratory and cardiovascular health issues such as bacterial considerable savings in CO2 emission.
infection, impaired lung function, low haemoglobin / RBC, altered Numerous health issues from handling, processing and exposure
immunity, allergy, asthma, and inflammation in the nose, throat, to solid wastes are avoidable. Measures such as minimizing waste
lung, and other impairments bear their mark [145]. generation by studying and applying life-cycle analysis within
the manufacturing process. A product designed for the smallest
4.4. Solutions to Key challenges waste footprint can significantly influence waste generation.
Awareness is an issue that mars the public and administration's Disposal of waste may be kept in check for emission of heavy
potential. Both need to keep abreast of the present scenario and metals and other toxic chemicals. At present, open burning and
the fate of SWM. Awareness-related matters can be addressed dumping are the most prevalent methods of waste disposal
by assessing public awareness and involvement through knowledge Advancement in disposal technology is warranted for environ-
gap analysis, which promotes informed decision-making. Hence, ment-friendly disposal methods. Reduction of Impact through an
better policy formulation, clear laws, and fee methodology. early warning system and decision-making system based on con-
Improved public awareness plays a pivotal role in deciding the tinuous analysis of temporal and spatial variation of waste charac-
fate of the environment during pilgrimage and religious events. teristics is required. Mitigation shall not only focus on immediate
A moral and ethical value system toward solid waste management impact minimization but also work on a long-term solution for
enhances the quality and quantity of waste collected. Numerous environmental health. Due to the recent COVID-19 pandemic,
studies have pointed out that a door-to-door collection system a dedicated healthcare waste handling system, including measures
is better at segregation than a point collection system. Improvement for recycling, treatment, and disposal, has been established in
in segregation primarily impacts waste conversion into recycled many countries.
goods and energy resources. This helps to obviate the emission
of greenhouse gasses. Awareness of the administrative system can
be increased by learning from advanced countries. Techniques 5. Conclusion
such as artificial intelligence, machine learning, convolutional
neural networks, internet-of-things, computer vision, etc., followed The study concludes that prompt action is necessary for data man-
in developed countries, may help the automated identification agement, training, education, planning, monitoring, strict policy
and segregation of waste. changes with strong legislation, the establishment of a reliable
Waste-to-energy issues can be resolved by exploring newer ave- regulatory system, proper and effective management of all waste
nues where untapped resources, such as the provisioning of landfill streams, public awareness, and best housekeeping practices for
gas as fuel on a large scale—innovative ways to convert raw wastes adequate implementation of solid waste management in the devel-
into high-energy producing substances. Improved efficiency of oping countries. This state-of-the-art review examines the literature
collection and segregation is possible by forming a workable collec- on management, framework, awareness, generation, collection,
tion plan, and optimized route map created using geo-positional segregation, characterization, minimization, storage, transport,
attributes. It will invariably reduce time-operation and savings treatment, recycling, disposal, impact, GHG emission, COVID-19,
in labor, distance, and pathways. Multi-criteria decision support and waste-to-energy aspects of solid waste management. It finds

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 Environmental Engineering Research 28(4) 220249

that one of the significant challenges to SWM is the steps to be 5. Yoshikawa N, Fujiwara N, Nagata J. Scenario analysis of green-
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Correction solid waste management in COVID-19 pandemic: Perspectives
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