Chapter 23

NANOCHEMISTRY
23.1 Introduction
The introduction of 'nano' car by TATA motors has greatly popularised the term 'nano' among he
Indian masses.The word nano signifying very small objects of the range of 1-100 nm has ins
importance in the last two decades. Nano literally means dwarf (10-) and can be used as a
to the fundamental properties such as mass, time and length to give important scientific properis
such as:

Nanogram 10g
Nanosecond 10s

Nanometer 10 m.

The science of small objects has grown rapidly in thepast twodecades as the behavior ot matter a
'nano' level is considerably different from the bulk behavior of the matter. The physical, chemical,
electrical, optical and magnetic properties of nanomaterials are significantly different from the
properties of the same material of bigger size. For example, a metal with a grain size of 10 nm is
seven times harder and tougher than its counterpart with the size of! hundreds of nanometers.
Moreover, the nanomaterials have arelatively larger surface areathan ordinary materialsandthis
has a significant effect on their physical properties and chemical reactivities. It has been observedform
that certain substances that are ordinarily their
nanoscale

because of their high surface area. "The quantumunreactive become reactive in Inanolevel varics
of matter at bulk level and
significantly. (The specificsurface area increases effects
from
decrease

micrometer to nanometer.) three times when the dimensions

whose size
Nanoscience and Nanochemistry It is the science of nanoparticles or the particles

varies from 1 to 10 nm in at least one dimension,

various chemical reactions and chemical Nanochemistry exploits possible otherwiseat
arherwise
the bulk level. Nanotechnology purposes, which would not be
v a r i o u s

uilizes the behavior of partices at the 'nano' level in

production processes.
 Nanochemistry 1235

How much is a nanometer?

One nanometer is equivalent to one billionth (one thousand millionth) of a meter. These partieles
are not visible to the human eye and can be seen only under a powerful microscope. The size of
arious objects can help to have a visual perception of a nano-sized objects.
Human hair is about 100,000 nm wide.
Red blood cell is about 2000-5000 nm wide.
Human DNA is 2.5 nm wide.
Diameter of carbon nanotube is 1.0-1.3 nm.
Water molecule is about 0.3 nm across.
An ant is 4 million nm big!
Nowyou can visualize how smalla nanometer is!

Bacterium Large Raindrop Strand of Hair

DNA
2.5 nanometers 2.5 micrometers 2.5 millimeters 100micrometers
diameter long diameter diameter

Ant Red blood corpuscles Buckyball

4 millimeters (2-5 micrometers) (1 nm)
long

igure 23.1 Sizes of various common objects

1236 Engincering Chemistry: Fundanmentals and Appications
23.2 Properties of Nanomaterials
The properties of nanomaterials are very different from those of the bulk material. The
increases the surface area and has a marked effect on the electrical, electronic, optical and nanosize
properties. They also introduce many new properties in materials such as bucky tubes (ark catalyic
nanotubes) are very stif and have high tensile strength, and CdSe shows fluorescent emission
over a broad range. The properties of materials such as melting point and conductivity show a
marked change. Melting point depresses by about 50% in nanoscale and the metals chanee f
conductors tosemiconductors and also to insulators. For example, bulk gold is golden in colo
is lustrous, ductile, good conductor of heat and electricity, is chemically inert and does nor to
with most reagents and is unaffected by air. It has a high melting point of 1080 °C.
Nanogold
on the other hand is never golden; it has a variety of colors depending upon the shape and size of
the nanoparticles. It is not a metal but a semiconductor that melts at a relatively low temperature
(-940 °C). Moreover, nanogold acts as a good catalyst. Similarly, the electronic, optical, electrical
and catalytic properties of nanosilver are very different from those of bulk silver.
The other effects on the properties of nanomaterials are as follows.
Optical properties
Nanomaterials have interesting optical properties. Optical propertiesare markedly affected by the
shape, size and surface characteristics, doping characteristics and environmental interactions of
the nanoparticles. For example, CdSe nanoparticles show fluorescent emission over a broad rang.
Electrical properties At nanoscale, the conductivity changes from metal to semiconductors to
insulators, that is, from high to low.
Mechanical properties Nanoparticles generally have good tensile strength, elasticity and fracture
resistance. They are therefore used as fillers in polymers to improve their mnechanical properties.
Magnetic properties Many substances such as gold and platinum which are non-magnetic in
bulk become magnetic at the nanosize. Magnetic nanoparticles of Pd, Pt and Au can be obtained
from non-magnetic bulk materials.

23.3 Self-assembly
As discussed earlier, nanomaterials are particles haying size in therange of 1to
100 nm at least in one
dimension.These materials can be made up of a large number of atoms.
Owing to their smal s
their properties are considerably different from the bulk materials, Nanomaterials can be prepared
either by dividing the bulky materials into small particles of the above-mentioned
down approach) or by assembling very small particles and binding them to dimension (toP
1-100nm (bottom-up approach). Self-assembly is the basic principle the desired s
underlying the bottonr
approach that helps to synthesize nanomaterials and enables them to organise
with lowest energy configurations. Self-assembly enables very into regular patte
small The
ordered patterns or arraysto help them performla particular function. atoms to be arrang
components assemble or
aggregate without the guidance of any external force. For example, alkanethiols form self-assembled
 Nanochemistry 1237

monolayers (SAMS) on gold colloids. CdSe nanoparticles are formed by the self-assembly of atoms
into astable crystalline form (molecular self-assembly). Athree-dimensional photonic crystal is
formed by the1further self-assembly of CdSe nanoparticles (material self-assembly). Other common
examples of self-assembly are the formation of surfactants in soap bubbles, crystallisation of water
into solid ice, crystallisation of viruses for X-ray determinacion and alignment of liquid crystals.
Biological systems, RNA, proteins and nucleic acids are all self-assembled. Living organisms
represent a collection of hierarchically arranged self-assembled structures from molecular to
macroscopic level. Nanoscience focuses on self-assembly at ascale of les than 100 nm.
Top-Down
Bulk

Powder

Nanoparticles

Clusters

Atoms

Bottom-up

Figure 23.2 The top-down and bottom-up approaches

Principles of self-assembly
selt-assemble to give patterned structures
are the
1 Components The basic units that macromolecules.
molecules or segments of
components. These components can be interactions
self-assembly are weak and non-covalent
2. Interactions The driving forces behind - interactions.
such as van der Waals forces,electrostatic forces, hydrophobic interactions, of
bonds and even metal-ligand bonds and coordination bonds. In self-assembly
hydrogen
objects of meso- and macro dimensions, other forces such as capillary forces, gravitational
larger electromagnetic interactions:sandentropic interactions also play a
attractions, magnetic forces,
significant role.
formed by selt-assembly only when the components
3. Adistability Ordered structures can be aggregate. Hence, it is essential that the forces
berween
are able to adjust their positions in the thermal motion. There is equilibria between
aggregates should be weak and easily disrupted by
non-aggregated states.
the aggregated and
 1238 Engineering Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications

4. Environment The environment greatly affects the patterns of aggregates. By

environment (using boundaries and templates), the self-assembled structures canmodifying
be tais the
as per the requirement.
5. Mass transport and agitation Self-assembly occurs only when the molecules are mobile. For
small molecules, thermal motion is sufficient to bringthe molecules in contact, whereas :
from thermal motion self-assembly of meso- and macro-dimensions apart
require shaking and
stirring.

Types of self-assembly
Self-assembly can be staticor dynamic. Atomicand molecular crystals, liquid crystals, self-assembled
monolayers, colloidal crystals, bubble rafts and liquid bilayers all represent static assemblies.
Examples of dynamic self-assemblies are solar system, galaxies, macro- and mesoscopic structures,
etc. A few common types of self-assemblies are discussed below
(i) Molecular selfassembly Molecular self-assembly refers to the assembling of molecules
without the aid of any external force. The molecules assemblespontaneously intostable and
structured aggregates. The driving forces behind molecular self-assembly are reversible non
cOvalent interactions such as van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, metal-ligand bonds, H
interactions, etc. The reversibility of forces help components of self-assembled aggregates to
adjust mutually. Molecular self-assembly can be intermolecular as well as intramolecular.
Intramolecular self-assembly generally brings about folding and the term molecular self
assembly actually refers to intramolecular self-assembly.
(ii) Material selfassembly Material self-assembly results from the assembling of various
sized blocks. In these lattices, the atoms of conventional solids are replaced by nano
nanomaterials.
In material self-assembly, the organic, inorganic and polymeric chemical
components with
well-defined functions integrate into electronic, photonic, mechanical, analytical and chemical
systems for an intended nanotechnological application. Systems capable of pertorming
electronic operations such as switching, gating, rectification and amplification are designed
by using materials' self-assembly.
1242 Engineering Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications

23.4 Preparation of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials can be synthesised in a number of ways. The various methods generally employed
for the synthesis of nanomaterials are as follows.
(i) Mechanical grinding This method of synthesis of nanomaterials follows a
approach. In this method, the nanoparticles are not synthesised by assembling smalltop-down
particles
but by the structural decomposition of larger particles by the use of mechanical mills Ti
method is simple and inexpensive but causes environmental pollution.
(ii) Wet chemical synthesis Wet synthesis can follow the top-down approach in which a
sinole
crystal is etched into nano-sized particles in aqueous solution. Porous silicon is synthesised
by electrochemical etching. It can also follow a bottom-up approach where small particles
agglomerate in a controlled manner to form nanosized particles.
(a) Solgelprocess It is avery popular method used for the preparation of oxide nanomaterials.
The solgel process involves hydrolysis followed by condensation. A metal or metalloid
employed as a precursor is dispersed in acid or water to form a sol. Gel is obtained from
this sol by the removal of water.

MOR + H,0 ’ MOH + ROH (hydrolysis).

Metal alkoxide
MOH + ROM ’ MOM + ROH (condensation).

The various steps involved are as follows:

(i) First the solvated solution of the alkoxide or metal is formed.
() Solvation is followed by polycondensation due to the formation of
oxide or alcohol-bridged
network. This leads to gelation and increases the viscosity of the solution dramatically.
(ii) Gradually, the gel solidifies and the smaller particles aggregate
to form larger particles, a
process called coarsening.
(iv) This is followed by drying of the gel where water and volatile liquids are
network. After this the surface-bound M-OH groups are removed so that removed from the gel
the gel is stabilised
against rehydration.
The above method of synthesis follows the bottom-up
approach, where it is essential to contro
the growth of the agglomerating particles. The bottom-up method, although slow, leads to the
formation of mono-sized nanoparticles.
(2) Gas-phase synthesis of nanomaterials Gas-phase synthesis
have certain advantages is gaining importance as the

Advantages
The size, shape and chemical composition of the nanomaterials can easily be controlled.
Substances formed are of high purity.
The reaction mechanism is easily controllable.
 Nanochemistry 1243

The conventional gas phase synthesis is the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method that can
be either homogencous CVD or heterogeneous CVD, In these synthetic routes, small clusters of
nanoparticles are produced because of condensation.
In homogeneous CVD, the particles in the gaseous phase diffuse under the influence of
thermophoretic forces and deposit on thecold surface. These deposits are either scrapped off to
yield nanopowders or particulate flms' are formed by depositing them onto the substrate.
Chemical vapor deposition can be achieved in a number of ways
(a) Furnace heating The appropriate material is heated in a furnace upto a temperature of
2000 °C. The material is evaporated in an inert atmosphere (e.g., helium). Ifa compound isto
be formed then the precursor is fed at very low pressure into the furnace in the presence of the
substance with which it has to react. The hot particles are then condensed into small clusters.
The clusters grow as long as they are in the supersaturated region. The size is controlledThis
by
removing them rapidly from the supersaturated region with the help of a carrier gas.
method is simple and the particle size can be controlled by controlling the rate of evaporation,
rate of condensation and the rate of removal of cluster with the assistance of carrier gas.
(b) Flame-assisted ultrasonic spray pyrolysis In this method the precursor is nebulised to
obtain its vapors. These vapors are then pyrolysed by burning in an acetylene oxygen flame or
hence,
hydrogen oxygen flame. The high pressure may result in highly agglomerated powders;
This method is
the low-pressure range is maintained to reduce the aggregation of particles.
used to obtain ZrO, nanoparticles (precursor Zr(CH,CH,CH,0),]and silica nanoparticles
(silica tetrachloride is heated in an oxyhydrogen flame). It is also widely used
to obtain
atmosphere,
titanium dioxide, fused silica and carbon black. As the flame has an oxidative
this method is limited to the formation of oxides (Fig. 23.4).

Vapors of precursor
Clusters
Flame

Carrier
gas
Nanomaterial
Precursor Nebulizer deposit
Substrate
fHeat
pyrolysis
Figure 23.4 Flame assisted ultrasonic spray

method the desired substance is vaporised

(c) Gas condensation processing (GPC) In this inert atmosphere of He, Ne, Ar and Kr or
in an
by thermal evaporation or by sputteringcondensed and collected either in a solvent or Av
by a laser beam. The particles are then pure nanocrystalline
deposition on a collection device. This method helps in the synthesis ofused for evaporation
Substances, Generally, refractory metal crucibles of W, Ta or
Mo are
and if the substance reacts with crucible then evaporation
is accomplished by a laser beam ar
electron beam.
1244 Engincering Chemistr;: Fundamentals and Applications

(d) Chemical vapor condensation (CVC) In chemical vapor condensation, the source of
evaporation is replaced by a hot wall reactor. To avoid the formation of thin films and to
promote homogeneous nucleation of precursor particles the gas flow rate and residence time
of the precursor particles is adjusted.
The vapors of precursor are introduced into the hot wall reactor, where, by adjusting the
conditions, nano-sized clusters are formed that are condensed and removed. This method
is useful for thesynthesis of nanoparticles of nitrides, carbides, BaTiO,or other composite
structures (Fig. 23.5).

Other reactant Clusters

O Condensation Scrapper

Hot wall
reactor
Carrier
gas
Vapour
Cold finger

Particle
collection

Fiqure 23.5 Schematic representation ofaCVC reactor

(e) Sputtered plasma processing This method is similar to the gas phase condensation method,
except that the precursor is sputtered using rare gases and then the particles agglomerate to
produce nanomaterials. This method finds use in the synthesis of nanoparticles of various
alloys, oxides, carbides, nitrides, etc.
() Microwave plasma procesing In this technique the precursor is vaporised
instead of high temperature. In this method, the precursor is introduced fromusing the
plasma
front of
the reaction vessel that is made of quartz and is placed in a cavity connected to a
microwave
generator. The advantage of plasma-assisted pyrolysis is that the precursor can be activated
at low temperatures that prevent the excessive agglomeration of the primary particles. The
primary precursor can be coated with another phase by introducing the second precursor
into the reactor. This method is employed for coating ZrO, nanoparticles with Al,O,
inner ZrO, is crystalline, whereas Al,O, is amorphous. By reversing the reaction sequence The
amorphous Al,0, can be coated with crystalline ZrO,. This method can be used to obtain
both nanoparticles as well as thin film of nanoparticles.

23.5 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials formn the basis of nanoscience and nanotechnology. They are very small materials
with the particle size ranging from 1 to l100 nm. The different types of nanomaterials are as follows
 Nanochemistry 1245

1. Carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes are considered as allotropes of carbon belonging to the fullerene tamily
carbon nanotube consists of asheet of carbon atoms that are sp'-hybridised and have ahexagonal
symmetry. Such a two-dimensional sheet is called graphene. Acarbon nanotube is produced by
rolling a graphene sheet into a cylindrical shape.
The tube can be opened or closed at the ends by half fullerenc. The length is several times
the width and the ratio of length to diameter is of the order of 100; hence, carbon nanotubes are
considered as 1D structure. The properties of CNTdepend in the manner in which the graphene
sheet is rolled.
They have unique electronic and mechanical properties.
They are 100,000times thinner than the human hair.
stronger than steel, but six
They combine rigidly and flexibly and can be hundreds of times
times lighter.
They possess very high tensile strength and stifness.
Their compression strength is in the range of 100-150GPa.
elasticity and capability of atomic
They can withstand large strains and show considerable
rearrangement.
which they are closed at the ends. The
Their electronic properties depend on the manner in
symmetry and helicity or chirality with
electronic properties are greatly influenced by the
not affect the mechanical properties
respect to the tube axis. This alignment, however, does
of CNTS.
specificity and inertness.
They posses high conductivity, chemical

Types of carbon nanotubes

There are two types of CNTs:
) Single-walled (one tube) SWNT
MWNT
(ii) Multi-walled (several concentric tubes)
non-bonding interactions such as
Individual nanotubes align themselves through
form ropes.
van der Waals forces, pi stacking to
SWCNT MWCNT

Figure 23.6 Carbon nanotubes

1246 Engineering Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications

Source: Veena Choudary and Anju Gupta (2011). Polymer/Carbon Nanotube

Nanocomposites, Carbon Nanotubes Polymer Nanocomposites, Dr. Siva Yellampalli
(Ed.) ISBN: 978-953-307-49 8-6, InTech, DOI:10.5772/18423. Available from: htto://
www.intechopen.com/books/carbon-nanotubes-polymer-nanocompositeslpolymer-carbon
nanotube-nanocomnposites

Synthesis
Carbon nanotubes are produced in the following manners:
() Evaporating graphite rods in adynamic atmosphere of helium.
(i) Laser evaporation of graphite produced SWNT.Amixture of graphite is heated with Fe and
Ni catalysts at 1200 C and the material is irradiated with laser. It yields 50%-70% CNT.
(ii) SWNTs and MWNTscan be synthesised by chemical vapor deposition. An organometallic
precursor and carbon-containing feed gas are mixed and pyrolysed in a quartz tube. The
nanotubes thus formed are collected from the cooler end.
(iv) Both MWNTs and SWNTs are formed with carbonaceous matter and can be separated by
heat treatment. The amorphous carbon material is burnt off by heating the soot at 750 C for
half an hour; the product thus obtained is a mixture of nanotubes.

Applications
CNTshave awide range of potential applications because of their exceptional material properties
such as high electrical and thermal conductivity, strength, stiffness and toughness. They find their
use in the manufacture of reinforced composites, sensors, nanoelectronics and display devices.
Some of their applications are as follows:
(i) SWCNT is strong and stiff with strength hundreds of times stronger than steel and are much
lighter; hence, they are used for making light but strong composite materials. SWNTs are the
strongest known material. Owing to their strength, they are widely used in manufacturing
reinforced plastics, car and aeroplane parts and in sports goods.
(ii) MWCNTs have good heat and electrical conductivity and they find use in chemical sensors,
conducting paints, hydrogen storage and in the manufacture of composite materials.
(iii) SWNTs find use in solar panels because of their tendency to absorb ultraviolet/visible and
near infrared light.
(iv) SWNTs are used for hydrogen storage owing to their capillary effects.
(v) Electrically conducting CNT Alms are used in LCDs, touch screens and photovoltaic devices.
These films are also used for displays in computers, cell phones, ATMs, etc.
(vi) MWNTs generate strong electrical field and are used for electricmotor brushes.
(vit) MWNTs are used in lithium ion batteries and silicon-coated carbon nanotubes are used as
anodes for Li- ion batteries.
23.7 Applications of Nanomaterials
1. Medicine Nanoparticles are being used for the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases.
Nanomaterials are used in medicine as drug carriers. Their large surface area enables them
to load the drug on them and their small size helps them to transport these
drugs into the
cells, nuclei and across the membranes. In 1959, Nobel laureate Richard
Feynman in his
famous talk on Plenty of room at the bottom' suggested the concept
of effective use of
nanotechnology in disease treatment.
The nanoparticles can be coated on the drug (nanospheres), filled in a cavity
by a polymeric layer (nanocapsules), the drug can be contained in holes inside surrounded
(nanopores) or in branched-tree-shaped nanoparticles (dendrimers). nanoparticles
Biodegradable nanoparticles are used to carry antibiotics to specific sites. Nanotechnology
also has widespread diagnostic applications. It is used in early diagnosis of
cancer.
various forms of
2. Catalysis The nanoparticles have large surface area and hence provide higher
activity. This property finds use in catalytic
catalysis by precious metals such as Pd, Pt and
metals are widely used as catalysts but they are very expensive. The nanosize of Rh. These
.creases the reactive surface area, making them extremely active and these catalvsts
thereby economising
 Nanochemnistry 1253

their use. The active metal nanoparticles are supported on powdered material in the omo
beads, platelets, etc.
Similarly, although bulk aluminium is used for making utensils, nanoaluminium becomes
so reactive that it finds its use as a solid fuel in rocket propulsion. It supplies the required
thrust to propel the rocket in space.
3. Environmentaltechnologies Nanoparticles are being widely uscd to control environmental
pollution. Nanoparticles on powder supports or on tubular monoliths form acatalytic system
used widely in the removal of pollutants such as oxidation of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) in chimneys. Oxidation of flue gases in the catalytic converters of petrol-burning
internal combustion engines where CO is oxidised to CO, (in the presence of Pt catalyst).
NO, is removed by reducing it toN, in the presence of CO (catalyst Rh), and hydrocarbons
are oxidised toCO, and H,O using Pd catalyst.
Similarly, cerium oxide nanoparticles are used in diesel engines for pollution control.
combustion, hence are
They trap the carbon particles (soot) formed because of incomplete
used in flters.
widely used in electronic circuits used
4. Electronics and related fields Nanomaterials are
etc. Use of nanomaterials helps in
in television, radio, telephone, automobiles, aeronautics,
reducing the size of these gadgets.
used to develop sensors whose functional
The propertiesof particles of nanodimensions are dimension, The high surface
itself is not nano in
units are nanoentities, although the material
to-volumne ratio of nanomaterials, their optical, electrical
and physical properties help them
detected.
response to the minute change in the concentration of the species to be
initiate nanoelectromechanical
Solid-state techniques can also be used to
create devices known as
microelectromechanical system or MEMS.
system or NEMS that are related to
of nanocrystalline nickel and nickel
Batteries Nickel metal hydride batteries made
charging.
hydrides last longer and require less frequent
Mechanics Nanoparticles are used to improve
the performance of tyres and improve
5 common uses of nanoparticles to improve
mechanical properties of ceramics and alloys. The
are as follows:
themechanical properties decreases
include reduced roll resistance that
Tyre The properties of a good tyre
capacity especially when the road is wet
the petrol consumption, good road holding resistance to wear to improve its liferime
or covered with snow and it should have
Nanoparticles of precipitated silica are added to tyres
to improve their resistance to
durable. These highly dispersible silica
rupture, increase hardness and make them more and increase rheir
roll resistance
(HDS) improve their road holding capacity, reduce
resistance to wear.
metal-ceramiccomposites (cermets) imnrove
Addition of nano-structured particles to modulus-bonding strength
their hardness, tensile strength and elastic
1254 Engineering Chemistry: Fundamentals and Applications

Alumina nanofibers and carbon nanotubes added to polymers make them stiffer, prevent
them from deformation, increase stability to heating effects, make them more water
resistant and improve their load-bearing strength.
Polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) are used for packing food and medicines, although
biodegradable they lack mechanical strength. Addition of clay improves mechanical
strength without affecting its biodegradability.
Nanoporous solids act as shock absorbers and molecular springs. This is accomplished
by intruding alyophobic liquid (non-wetting liquid) inside the porous solid. They find
application in car bumpers, suspension for vehicles, devicing systems to protect buildings
from seismic vibrations and various other devices. The lyophobic liquid is intruded and
extruded on the application and release of pressure.
6 Surface nanoengineering Nanoparticles are used for making self-cleaning surfaces.
Water from the danp air condenses on the glass surface, making it difficult to see through
it. Coating these glass surfaces with TiO, nanoparticles make the glass hydrophilic, rather
than hydrophobic so that the condensed droplets spread as a continuous layer and prevent
the distortion of visual image. Similarly, deposition of Ti0, nanoparticles on ceramic and
polymer surfaces leads to self-cleaning surfaces.
7. Miscellaneous uses
Nano titanium oxides are used in cosmetics to prevent the skin from solar radiations
(preparation of sun screens).
The luminescent materials that glow when struck by a beam of electrons are called
phosphors'. These phosphors are widely used in television screens, for detection of
forgery in bank notes, scintillators in medical fields, etc. The reduction in size improves
the resolution of monitors. Nano phosphors are also used as fillers in cosmetics, varnishes
and technical fibers. Owing to the nanoparticle size of the fillers the visible wavelengths
do not interact and light passes easily, thereby maintaining the transparency.
In the medical field, chese phosphors are fixed on proteins and can easily
the cells and membranes helping in the diagnosis and cure of diseases.
pass through
In environment studies, nanophosphors act as non-polluting and non-radioactive
markers and help in the detection of the flow of liquid or gas leakage, etc.
Food packing Nanosensors find use in food packaging as they are capable of changing
color when the food is no longer edible.
Lubricants Nanospheres are widely used for lubrication.
Magnetic materials Magnets made of nanocrystalline yttrium-samarium-cobalt
grains possess exceptional magnetic properties because of their larger grain interface
area. These magnets find use in motors, in medical field, in magneticresonance imaging
(MRI) and in microsensors.
Nanoscale magnetic materials are used for data storage devices such as computer hard discs. The
USe of nanoparticles improves the storage capacity of the disc.