16.

Semiconductor Devices

Can you recall? Working of a simple rectifier circuit is

shown in Fig. 16.1. The AC mains supply is
1. What is a p-n junction diode? connected to the primary of a transformer
2. What is breakdown voltage and knee and its secondary is connected to a rectifier
voltage? circuit. The AC voltage shown as a sinusoidal
3. What is a forward and reverse biased wave from the secondary of the transformer
diode?
is converted into a DC voltage by a diode
16.1 Introduction rectifier. This is shown next as a pulsating
In XI th Std. we have studied a p-n junction wave (b). The output of the rectifier contains
diode. When the diode is forward biased, some AC component. This AC component in
it behaves as a closed switch and current the DC output of a rectifier is called ripple
flows in the diode circuit. When the diode is and is shown at the output of the rectifier. It
reverse biased, it behaves as an open switch is removed by using a filter circuit. The output
and neglibly small current flows in the diode of the filter circuit is almost a pure DC. (It
circuit. This switching action of a diode allows can still contain some ripple). The voltage
it to be used as a rectifier. regulator circuit shown after the filter restricts
Generation of AC at a power station is the output voltage to the desired value. The
more cost effective than producing DC power. output voltage at this stage is a across pure
The transmission of AC power is also more DC (d).
economic than transmitting DC power. This 16.2 p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier
AC voltage varies sinusoidally. In India, it is An AC voltage varies sinusoidally, i.e. its
230 V and has a frequency of 50 Hz. There value and direction changes in one cycle. A
are many electronic gadgets such as a TV, or rectifier converts this bidirectional voltage or
a mobile charger which require a DC supply. current into a unidirectional voltage or current.
Therefore, it is necessary to convert AC voltage The conversion of AC voltage into a DC voltage
into a DC voltage. The AC mains voltage is is called rectification. An electronic circuit
rectified by using junction diodes to obtain a which rectifies AC voltage is called rectifier.
DC voltage. In this chapter, we will study the There are two types of rectifier circuits, 1) half
use of diode as a rectifier and also different wave rectifier and 2) full wave rectifier.
types of rectifiers. We will also study filters 16.2.1 Half Wave Rectifier
which remove the AC component from the A simple half wave rectifier circuit using
rectified voltage and voltage regulators which only one diode is shown in Fig. 16.2.
provide the required DC voltage.

16.1: Block diagram simple rectifier circuit with respective output wave form. Describe the wave forms.
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 Hence a DC output voltage obtained
across RL is in the form of alternate pulses.
16.2.2 Full Wave Rectifier:
As discussed in the previous section, the
output of a half wave rectifier is available
only in alternate positive half cycles of the AC
input. All negative half cycles are lost and the
Fig. 16.2: Circuit diagram of a half wave efficiency of a half wave rectifier is very poor.
rectifier. Therefore, a rectifier circuit using two diodes
The secondary coil AB of a transformer is more useful.
is connected in series with a diode D and the In a full wave rectifier, current flows
load resistance RL. The use of transformer has through the load in the same direction during
both the half cycles of input AC voltage.
two advantages. First, it allows us to step up
This is because, the full wave rectifier circuit
or step down the AC input voltage as per the
consists of two diodes conducting alternately.
requirement of the circuit, and second it isolates
Figure 16.4 shows typical circuit of a full wave
the rectifier circuit from the mains supply rectifier. The circuit consists of a centre tapped
to reduce the risk of electric shock. The AC transformer and diodes D1 and D2.
voltage across the secondary coil AB changes
its polarities after every half cycle. When the
positive half cycle begins, the voltage at the
point A is at higher potential with respect to
that at the point B, therefore, the diode (D) is
forward biased. It conducts (works as a closed
Fig. 16.4: Circuit diagram for full wave rectifier.
switch) and current flows through the circuit.
When the negative half cycle begins, the The diodes D1 and D2 are connected such
potential at the point A is lower with respect that D1 conducts in the positive half cycle
to that at the point B and the diode is reverse and D2 conducts in the negative half cycle
biased, therefore, it does not conduct (works as of the input voltage. During the positive half
cycle of the input voltage, the point A is at a
an open switch). No current passes through the
higher potential than that of the point B and
circuit. Hence, the diode conducts only in the
the diode D1 conducts. The current through the
positive half cycles of the AC input. It blocks
load resistance RL follows the path APQRC
the current during the negative half cycles. The as shown in Fig. 16.4. During the negative
waveform for input and output voltages are half cycle of the input voltage, point B is at
shown in Fig. 16.3. In this way, current always higher potential than point A and the diode
flows through the load RL in the same direction D2 conducts. The current through the load
for alternate positive half cycles. resistance RL follows the path BPQRC. Thus,
the current flowing through the load resistance
is in the same direction during both the cycles.
The input and output waveforms of a full
wave rectifier are shown in Fig. 16.5. First
waveform is input AC. The second wave form
shows the output when the diode D1 conducts
Fig. 16.3: Waveform of input and output signals and the third waveform shows the output
for half wave rectifier. when diode D2 conducts. The fourth waveform

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shows the total output waveform of the full 16.2.3 Ripple Factor:
wave rectifier. The output of a rectifier consists of a
small fraction of an A C component along with
DC called the ripple. This ripple is undesirable
and is responsible for the fluctuations in the
rectifier output. Figure 16.6 (a) shows the
ripple in the output of a rectifier.
The effectiveness of a rectifier depends
upon the magnitude of the ripple component
in its output. A smaller ripple means that the
rectifier is more effective.
Fig 16.5: Waveforms of input and output
signals for a full wave rectifier.

Remember this
A full wave rectifier utilises both half
cycles of AC input voltage to produce the
DC output
Fig. 16.6 (a): Ripple in the output of a DC output.

Do you know? The ratio of root mean square (rms) value

of the AC component to the value of the DC
The maximum efficiency of a full wave component in the rectifier output is known as
rectifier is 81.2% and the maximum the ripple factor, i.e.,
efficiency of a half wave rectifier is 40.6%. r .m. s.value of AC component
It is observed that the maximum efficiency Ripple factor 
value of DC component
of a full wave rectifier is twice that of half
16.2.4 Filter circuits:
wave rectifier.
The output of a rectifier is in the form
of pulses as shown in the fourth waveform
Advantages of a full wave rectifier in Fig 16.5.The output is unidirectional but
1) Rectification takes place in both the the output does not have a steady value. It
cycles of the AC input. keeps fluctuating due to the ripple component
2) The ripple in a full wave rectifier is less present in it. A filter circuit is used to remove
than that in a half wave rectifier. the ripple from the output of a rectifier.
A filter circuit is a circuit which removes
Example 16.1 : If the frequency of the input the AC component or the ripple from a rectifier
voltage50 Hz is applied to a (a) half wave output and allows only the DC component.
rectifier and (b) full wave rectifier, what is
the output frequency in both cases?
Solution:
(a) The output frequency is 50 Hz because
for one AC input pulsating we get one
cycle of DC.
(b) The output frequency is 100Hz because
for one input ac cycle we get two cycles
of pulsating DC. Fig. 16.6 (b): Filter circuit with capacitor.

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 diode first and then try to understand how it
can be used as a voltage regulator.
16.3 Special Purpose Junction Diodes:
In this section we will study some of the
common special purpose junction diodes such
as,
Fig. 16.6 (c): Output wave form ofter filtration. 1) Zener diode, 2) Photo diode, 3) Solar cell, 4)
Light Emitting Diode (LED).
A capacitor filter:
16.3.1 Zener Diode:
As shown in Fig. 16.6 (b), the pulsating
A Zener diode works on the principle
DC voltage of a rectifier output is applied
of junction breakdown. The other diodes
across the capacitor. As the voltage across the
mentioned above make use of photosensitivity,
capacitor rises, capacitor gets charged to point
a very important and useful property of
A and supplies current to the load resistance.
semiconductors.
At the end of quarter cycle, the capacitor gets
Junction Break Down:
charged to the peak voltage shown as Vp in
In XIth Std. we have studied that when
Fig. 16.6 (c) of the rectified output voltage.
reverse bias voltage of an ordinary junction
Now, the rectifier voltage begins to decrease,
diode is increased beyond a critical voltage,
so that the capacitor starts discharging
the reverse current increases sharply to a high
through the load resistance and the voltage
value. This critical voltage is called reverse
across it begins to drop. Voltage across the
breakdown voltage. The diode is damaged at
load decreases only slightly, up to the point
this stage. We will now discuss what happens
B, because the next voltage peak recharges
when there is a junction breakdown.
the capacitor immediately. This process is
Electrical break down of any material
repeated again and again and the output
(metal, semiconductor or even insulator) can
voltage waveform takes the form shown in Fig
be due to 1) Avalanche breakdown or 2)
16.6 (c). This output is unregulated DC wave
Zener breakdown. We will discuss only the
form. Voltage, regulator circuits are used to
Zener breakdown in some details.
obtain regulated DC supply The capacitor Zener Breakdown :
filter circuit is widely used because of its low When the reverse voltage across a p-n
cost, small size and light weight. This type of junction diode is increased, the electric field
filter is preferred for small load currents. It is across the junction increases. This results in a
commonly used in battery eliminators. force of attraction on the negatively charged
When a power supply is connected to a electrons at the junction. Covalent bonds which
load, it is noticed that there is a drop in the hold the semiconductor together are broken
output voltage. A power supply whose output due to this force and electrons are removed
changes when a load is connected across it is from the bonds. These free electrons are then
called unregulated power supply. When the available for electrical conduction and result
output of a power supply remains steady even in a large current. When the applied voltage is
after connecting a load across it, it is called a increased, the electric field across the junction
regulated power supply. There are many ways also increases and more and more electrons
in which a power supply can be regulated. A are removed from their covalent bonds. Thus,
commonly used voltage regulator circuit uses a net current is developed which increases
a Zener diode. We will now discuss a Zener rapidly with increase in the applied voltage.
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 Zener breakdown occurs in diodes which This property of the Zener diode is used in
are heavily doped. The depletion layer is a voltage regulator. The Zener voltage VZ
narrow in such diodes. Zener breakdown does depends upon the amount of doping. For a
not result in damage of a diode. heavily doped diode, the depletion layer is thin
Zener Diode Characteristic: and the breakdown occurs at a lower reverse
A Zener diode is a p-n junction diode voltage. A lightly doped diode has higher
designed to work in the breakdown region. breakdown voltage. The Zener diodes with
It is used as a voltage regulator or a voltage breakdown voltage of less than 6 V, operate
stabiliser. Figure 16.7 (a) shows the circuit mainly at Zener breakdown region. Those
symbol of a Zener diode. Its I-V characteristic with voltage greater the 6 V operate mainly
is shown in Fig. 16.7 (b). in avalanche breakdown region (not discussed
here) but both are called Zener diode.
Fig 16.7 (a): circuit Zener diode as a voltage regulator: When
symbol of a Zener diode. a Zener diode is operated in the breakdown
region (reverse bias), voltage across it remains
almost constant even if the current through it
changes by a large amount. A voltage regulator
maintains a constant voltage across a load
regardless of variations in the applied input
voltage and variations in the load current.
Figure 16.8 shows a typical circuit diagram of
a voltage regulator using a Zener diode.

Fig. 16.8: Voltage regulator using a Zener diode.

A Zener diode of break down voltage VZ
Fig 16.7: (b) I-V Characteristic curve for is connected in reverse bias to an input voltage
Zener Diode. source Vin(Vin > VZ). The resistor, RS connected
As can be seen from the characteristic, a in series with the Zener diode limits the current
Zener diode behaves like a normal diode when flow through the diode. The load resistance RL
forward biased. When reverse biased, it shows is connected in parallel with the Zener diode,
a breakdown. This breakdown discussed so that the voltage across RL is always the
previously occurs at a voltage called the Zener same as the Zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). We
voltage VZ. The current suddenly increases if will try to understand how voltage is regulated
the applied voltage is increased beyond the using such circuit.
Zener voltage. It is interesting to note that the (a) If the input voltage increases, the
voltage remains constant at VZ, for increasing current through Rs and the Zener diode also
current, once the Zener breakdown occurs. increases. This results in an increase in the
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voltage across the resistance Rs, but the voltage
across the Zener diode does not change. The Do you know?
series resistance Rs absorbs the output voltage
The voltage stabilization is effective
fluctuations and maintains a constant voltage
across the load resistance. This is because the when there is a minimum Zener current.
Zener voltage remains constant even through The Zener diode must be always operated
the current through the Zener diode changes
within its breakdown region when there is a
when it is in the breakdown region.
Hence the output voltage remains constant load connected in the circuit. Similarly, the
irrespecive of the change in the input voltage. supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
Thus, the Zener diode acts as a voltage
regulator. While designing a Zener regulator, the
(b) When the input voltage is constant value of series resistance is determined by
but the load resistance RL decreases, the load considering the specification of the Zener
current increases. This extra current cannot diode.
come from the source because the drop across
Rs will not change as the Zener is within its Do you know?
regulating range. The additional load current
is due to a decrease in the Zener current IZ. Zener diode Specifications
(c) When there is no load in the circuit, A Zener diode datasheet usually provides
(RL=f the load current will be zero, (IL= 0) and the information about the following
all the circuit current passes through the Zener patameters.
diode. This results in maximum dissipation
1. Zener V-I characteristic : This is
of power across the Zener diode. Similarly, a
discussed earlier.
small value of the series resistor RS results in a
larger diode current when the load resistance RL 2. Zener voltage VZ : It is also called as
of a large value is connected across it. This will reverse voltage. It is the voltage at which
increases the power dissipation requirement of a Zener diode breaks in reverse bias
the diode. The value of the series resistance RS mode. It is the voltage at which a Zener
is so selected that the maximum power rating diode is operated.
of the Zener diode is not exceeded when there 3. Maximum Zener current IZ or IZM : It
is no load or when the load is very high. is the maximum current that can flow
The voltage across the Zener diode through a zener diode at its rated voltage
remains constant at its break down voltage VZ VZ.
for all the values of Zener current IZ as long as
4. Power rating : It is the maximum power
the current persists in the break down region.
that can be dissipated by the Zener diode
Hence, a regulated DC output voltage VO= VZ is
obtained across RL whenever the input voltage package.
remains within a minimum and a maximum 5. Zener resistance RZ. It is the opposition
voltage. offered to the current flowing through a
The maximum power rating (PZ) of a Zener diode in its operating region, It is
Zener diode is given by PZ = (IZ(max)VZ). also called Zener impedance ZZ

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 Remember this Can you tell?

Zener effect occurs only if the diode is 1. How does a cell phone charger produce
heavily doped, because when the depletion a voltage of 5.0 V form the line voltage
layer is thin, breakdown occurs at low of 230V?
reverse voltage and the field strength will 2. Why is a resistance connected in series
be approximately 3x107 V/m. It causes an with a Zener diode when used in a
increase in the flow of free carriers and circuit?
increase in the reverse current.
Do you know?
Applications of Zener Diode: The Zener The voltage across a Zener diode does not
diode is used when a constant voltage is remain strictly constant with the changes
required. It has a number of applications in the Zener current. This is due to RZ, the
such as: Voltage regulator, Fixed reference Zener impedance, or the internal resistance
voltage provider in transistor biasing circuits, of the Zener diode. RZ acts like a small
Peak clipper or limiter in a wave shaping resistance in series with the Zener. Changes
circuit, Protector against meter damage from in IZ cause small changes in VZ .
accidental fluctuations, etc.
16.3.2 Photo Diode :
A photodiode is a special type of a p-n
junction diode which converts light energy
Example 16. 2
into electrical energy. It generates current
A 5.0V stabilized power supply is required
when exposed to light. It is also called as
to be desinged using a 12V DC power supply
photodetector or a photosensor. It operates in
as input source. The maximum power rating
reverse biased mode. Figure 16.9 (a) shows the
PZ of the Zener diode is 2.0 W. Using the
Zener regulator circuit described in Fig.
16.8, calculate, Anode Cathode
a)The maximum current flowing through
the Zener diode. b) The minimum value of Fig. 16.9 (a) : Circuit symbol of photodiode.
the series resistor, RS. c) The load current IL
circuit symbol of a photodiode. Only mionority
if a load resistor of 1k: is connected across
current flows through a photodiode. Figure
the Zener diode. d)The Zener current IZ at
16.9 (b) shows schematic of the structure of a
full load.
photodiode.
Solution:
a) Maximum current IZ = Power/Voltage =
PZ /Vo = 2.0/5.0 = 0.4 A = 400 mA.
b) RS = (Vs – VZ)/ IZ = (12.0 – 5.0) 400
= 17.5 :.
c) IL = VZ/ RL = 5.0/1000 = 0.005 A = 5.0 mA n

d) IZ = IS – IL = (400 – 5) = 395 mA.

Fig. 16.9 (b) : Schematic of the structure of a
photodiode.
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 The p-n junction of a photodiode is field present in the depletion region. The
placed inside a glass material so that only electrons are attracted towards the anode and
the junction of a photodiode is exposed to the holes are attracted towards the cathode.
light. Other part of the diode is generally More carriers are available for conduction
and the reverse current is increased. The
painted with an opaque colour or covered.
reverse current of a photodiode depends on the
Figure 16.9 (c) shows a typical photodiode. intensity of the incident light. Thus, the reverse
current can be controlled by controlling
the concentration of the minority carriers
in the junction. Figure 16.11 shows the I-V
characteristic of a photodiode. It clearly shows
the relation between intensity of illumination
and the reverse current of a photodiode.
Fig. 16.9 (c) : A typical photodiode.
Working Principle of Photodiode:
When a p-n junction diode is reverse
biased, a reverse saturation current flows
through the junction. The magnitude of this
current is constant for a certain range of
reverse bias voltages. This current is due to the
minority carriers on its either side.(Electrons
are minority carriers in the p-region and the
holes are minority carriers in the p-region of Fig. 16.11: The I-V characteristic of a
a diode). The reverse current depends only photodiode.
on the concentration of the minority carriers The total current passing through a
and not on the applied voltage. This current photodiode is the sum of the photocurrent
is called the dark currant in a photodiode and the dark current. Figure 16.12 shows
because it flows even when the photodiode is the graphical relation between the reverse
not illuminated. Figure 16.10 schematically current of a photodiode and the intensity of
shows working of a photodiode. illumination incident on the photodiode. The
sensitivity of the device can be increased by
minimizing the dark current.

Figure 16.10: schematically shows working of a

photodiode.
When a p-n junction is illuminated,
electron-hole pairs are generated in the
depletion region. The energy of the incident
photons should be larger than the band gap of Fig. 16.12: Relation between the reverse current
the semiconductor material used to fabricate of a photodiode and the intensity of illumination
the photodiode. The electrons and the holes
are separated due to the intrinsic electric
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 As you can see from the curve, reverse 7) Photo sensors/detectors, for accurate
current increases initially with increase in the measurement of light intensity.
intensity of illumination. It reaches a constant 8) Safety electronics like fire and smoke
value after certain voltage is reached. This detectors
constant value is called the saturation current
of the photodiode. One more term associated Try this
with a photodiode is its dark resistance Rd. It
is the resistance of a photodiode when it is not Study the relation between intensity of the
illuminated. Dark resistance of a photodiode incident light and the reverse current of a
(Rd) is defined as the ratio of the maximum
photodiode.
reverse voltage and its dark current.
Maximum reverse voltage  16.3.3 Solar Cell or Photovoltaic Cell:
Rd
Dark current Solar energy can be used in many ways. It
Advantages of photodiode is pollution free and available free of cost. Two
1) Quick response when exposed to light. major types of devices converting solar energy
2) Linear response. The reverse current in usable form are, a) Photo thermal devices
is linearly proportional to intensity of which convert the solar energy into heat energy.
incident light. These are mostly used for providing hot water.
3) High speed of operations. and b) Photo voltaic devices which convert
4) Light weight and compact size. solar energy into electrical energy using solar
5) Wide spectral response. For example,
cells. We will discuss the solar cells in some
photodiodes made from Si respond to
details. It is also known as photovoltaic cell.
radiation of wavelengths from 190 nm
Light incident on a solar cell produces both
(UV) to 1100 nm (IR).
a current and a voltage to generate electric
6) Relatively low cost.
power. A solar cell thus works as a source of
Disadvantages of photodiode DC power. Solar cells can supply power for
1) Its properties are temperature dependent, electric equipment at remote place on earth or
similar to many other semiconductor
aboard a satellite or a space station.
devices.
2) Low reverse current for low illumination Structure of a Solar Cell:
levels.
Applications of photodiode
A photodiode has many applications in a
number of fields ranging from domestic
applications to industrial applications due to
its linear response. The basic concept used in
almost all these devices/applications is that a
photodiode conducts whenever light strikes it
and it stops conducting the moment light stops.
Some applications of a photodiode are: Fig.16.13: (a) Schematic structure of a solar cell.
1) Counters and switches.
Figure 16.13 (a) shows the schematic
2) Burglar alarm systems.
3) Detection of visible and invisible structure of a solar cell. It consists of a p-n
radiations. junction. The n-side of the junction faces
4) Circuits in which fast switching and high- the solar radiation. The p-side is relatively
speed operations are required. thick and is at the back of the solar cell. Both
5) Fiber optic communication systems. the p-side and the n-side are coated with a
6) Optocouplers, used to provide an electric conducting material. The n-side is coated with
isolation between two electronic circuits. antireflection coating which allows visible
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light to pass through it. The main function of produced recombine and will be lost. There
this coating is to reflect the IR (heat) radiations will be no generation of current or power.
and protect the solar cell from heat. This is However, the photo-generated electrons (in
necessary, because the electronic properties the p-type material), and the photo-generated
of semiconductors are sensitive to fluctuations holes (in the n-type material) are spatially
in temperature. This coating works as the separated and prevented from recombination
electrical contact of the solar cell. The contact in a solar cell.
on the n-side is called the front contact and
that at the p-side is called the back contact or
the rear contact. The n-side of a solar cell is
thin so that the light incident on it reaches the
depletion region where the electron-hole pairs
are generated.
Material used for fabricating a solar
cell should fulfil two important requirements.
Firstly, it must be photosensitive material
which absorbs light and raises electrons to
a higher energy state. Secondly, the higher Fig. 16.13: (b) Separation of carriers in a solar cell.
energy electrons thus generated should be This separation of carriers is possible
taken from the solar cell into an external due to the intrinsic electric field of the
circuit. The electrons then dissipate their depletion region. Figure 16. 13 (b) shows
energy while passing through the external this schematically. When the light-generated
circuit and return to the solar cell. Almost electron in the in the p-type region reaches the
all photovoltaic devices use semiconductor p-n junction, it is swept across the junction by
materials in the form of a p-n junction. the electric field at the junction. It reaches the
Working of a solar cell: n-type region where it is now a majority carrier.
When light is incident on a solar cell, the Similarly, the light generated hole reaches the
following sequence of events takes place. p-type region and becomes a majority carrier
1) Electron-hole pairs are generated in the in it. The positive and negative charges are thus
depletion region of the p-n junction. accumulated on the p-region and the n-region
These are photo-generated carriers. of the solar cell which can be used as a voltage
2) The electrons and holes are separated source. When the solar cell is connected to an
and collected at the cathode and the external circuit, the light-generated carriers
anode respectively. flow through the external circuit.
3) The carriers are accumulated and V-I Characteristic of solar Cell or
generate a voltage across the solar cell. Photovoltaic cell:
4) Power thus produced is dissipated
(utilised) in the load resistance or in the
circuit connected across the solar cell.
Current produced in a in a solar cell is
called the ‘light-generated current’, or ‘photo-
generated current’. This is a two-step process.
The first step is the absorption of incident
photons to generate electron-hole pairs.
Electron-hole pairs will be generated in the
solar cell provided that the incident photon
has energy greater than that of the band
Fig. 16.14 :V-I Characteristic of solar Cell or
gap. Normally, the electrons and holes thus Photovoltaic cell
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 Figure 16.14 shows the I-V characteristic
of solar cell when illuminated. This is drawn in Can you tell?
the fourth quadrant because a solar cell supplies
What is the difference between a photo
current to the load. The power delivered to the
diode and a solar cell?
load is zero when the load is short-circuited.
When the intensity of light incident on a
The intersection of the curve with the I-axis
photo diode increases, how is the reverse
is the short-circuit current, Isc, corresponding
current affected?
to a given light intensity. The intersection of
the curve with the V- axis is the open circuit 16.3.4 Light Emitting Diode / LED:
voltage, Voc, corresponding to given light The Light Emitting Diode or LED as it
intensity. Again, power delivered to the load is more commonly called is a diode which
is zero when the load is open. However, there emits light when large forward current passes
is a point on the curve where power delivered through it.
PL = (VoL. Isc) is maximum.
A K
Criteria for selection of material for solar
cell:
1) Its band gap should be between 1.0 eV to Fig. 16.15 (a): Circuit symbol of LED.
1.8 eV. Figure 16.15 (a) shows the circuit
2) It should have high optical absorption symbol of LED and the Fig. 16.15 (b) shows
(conversion of light into electrical a schematic construction of a typical LED.
energy). The construction of a LED is different from
3) It should have good electrical that of a normal diode. The n-region is
conductivity. heavily doped than the p-region of the p-n
junction. The LED p-n junction is encased in
4) Material should be easily available.
a dome-shaped transparent case so that light is
Most materials used for fabrication of solar
emitted uniformly in all directions and internal
cells are have a band gap of about 1.5 eV. reflections are minimized. Metal electrodes
These include: Si (Eg = 1.1 eV), GaAs attached on either side of the p-n junction serve
(Eg =1.43 eV), CdTe(Eg = 1.45 eV), CuInSe as contacts for external electrical connection.
(Eg =1.04 eV). Solar cells used in domestic The larger leg of a LED is the positive electrode
and space applications are mostly Si based or anode. LEDs with more than 2 pins are also
solar cells. Solar cells are non-polluting, they available such as 3, 4 and 6 pin configurations
require less maintenance and last longer. They to obtain multi-colours in the same LED
package. Surface mounted LED displays are
have a higher cost of installation, are low in
available that can be mounted on PCBs.
efficiency. Epoxy lens
Use of Solar cell: Wire bond
Solar cells are used for charging batteries
Reflecting cavity
during day time so that batteries can supply
power during night. They are useful at remote
places, for supplying power to various
electronic equipment from calculators to
satellites and space stations, to supply power Fig. 16.15 (b):
Schematic structure of
to traffic signals, in communication stations, Anode Cathode
+ - LED.
and in Lux meter to measure intensity of light.

354
 LED is fabricated in such a way that light produce light of different wavelengths. For
emitted is not reabsorbed into the material. It example, when LED is manufactured using
is ensured that the electron-hole recombination aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs), it emits
takes place on the surface for maximum light infrared radiations. LED made using gallium
output. arsenic phosphide (GaAsP) produces either
red or yellow light, whereas LED made by
Do you know? using aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
emits red or green light and zinc selenide
LED junction does not actually emit that (ZnSe) produce blue light.
much light so the epoxy resin body is
constructed in such a way that the photons
emitted by the junction are reflected away
from the surrounding substrate base to
which the diode is attached and are focused
upwards through the domed top of the LED,
which itself acts like a lens concentrating
the light. This is why the emitted light
appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.
Working of a LED:
Figure 16.16 schematically shows the
emission of light when electron-hole pair Fig.16.17: Light Emitting Diode (LED) I-V
combines. When the diode is forward biased, Characteristic Curve.
electrons from the semiconductor's conduction I-V Characteristics Light Emitting Diodes:
band recombine with holes from the valence Figure 16.17 shows the I-V characteristic
band releasing sufficient energy to produce of LED. It is similar to the forward
photons which emit a monochromatic (single characteristic of an ordinary diode . The LED
colour) light. Because of the thin layer, a starts conducting after its cut-in voltage is
reasonable number of these photons can leave reached.
the junction and emit coloured light. The Remember this
amount of light output is directly proportional
to the forward current. Thus, higher the forward The current rating of LED is of a few tens
current, higher is the light output. of milli-amps. Hence it is necessary to
connect a high resistance in series with it.
The forward voltage drop of an LED is
much larger than an ordinary diode and is
around 1.5 to 3.5 volts.
Advantages of LED:
LED is a solid state light source.
1. Energy efficient: More light output for
lesser electrical power. LEDs are now
capable of producing 135 lumens/watt
Fig. 16.16: Emission of light from LED
2. Long Lifetime: 50,000 hours or more if
LEDs are fabricated by using compound
properly manufactured.
semiconductors made with elements such as
3. Rugged: LEDs are also called Solid State
gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying
Lights (SSL) as they are made of solid
the proportions of these elements in the
material with no filament or tube or bulb
semiconducting materials, it is possible to
to break.
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4. Almost no warm up period. LEDs start Application of LED:
emitting light in nanoseconds. An LED is used in a variety of ways such
5. Excellent colour rendering: Colours as, burglar alarm system, counters, optical
produced by LED do not fade out making communication, indicator lamps in electric
them perfect for displays and retail equipment, display screen of a cell phone
applications. handset, LED television, vehicle head lamps,
6. Environment friendly : LEDs do not contain domestic and decorative illumination, street
mercury or other hazardous substances. lighting.
7. Controllable: Brightness and colour of
light emitted by LEDs can be controlled. Try this

Do you know? LEDs are widely used in seven segment

displays. Such displays are used in
White Light LEDs or White LED Lamps: calculators electronic balances, watches,
Shuji Nakamura, a Japanese - born
digital instruments, etc. When diodes
American electronic engineer invented the
A,B,C,D,F and G are forward biased the
blue LED. He was awarded the Nobel prize
digit 9 is displayed. Observe how digits 0 to
for physics for 2014. He was also awarded
the global energy prize in the year 2015. His 9 are displayed by activating varies diodes.
invention of blue LED made the fabrication
of white LED possible. 16.4 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):
LED lamps, bulbs, street lighting are A junction transistor is a semiconductor
becoming very popular these days because device having two junctions and three
of the very high efficiency of LEDs in terms terminals. The current in a transistor is carried
of light output per unit input power(in milli by both the electrons and the holes. Hence,
Watts), as compared to the incandescent it is called a bipolar junction transistor. A
bulbs. So for general purpose lightings, transistor has three doped regions which form
white light is preferred. a structure with two back to back p-n junctions.
Commercially available white LEDs There are two types of transistors, namely,
are normally manufactured by using the (a) n-p-n transistor (b) p-n-p transistor. The
technique of wavelength conversion. It circuit symbols and schematic representation
is a process which partly or completely of the two types of transistors are shown in
converts the radiation of a LED into white Fig. 16.18 (a).
Emitter Collector Emitter Collector
light. There are many ways of wavelength (p) (p) (n) (n)
conversion. One of these methods uses blue
LED and yellow phosphor. In this method
of wavelength conversion, a LED which
Base Base
emits blue colour is used to excite a yellow (n) (p)
colour phosphor. This results in the emission p-n-p n-p-n
of yellow and blue light and this mixture of Fig. 16.18 (a): Circuit symbols of a BJT.
blue and yellow light gives the appearance In the circuit symbol, the emitter and
of white light. This method is the least collector are differentiated by drawing an
expensive method for producing white light. arrow. Emitter has an arrow either pointing
inwards or outwards. The direction of the arrow
Disadvantages of LED: indicates the direction of the conventional
Hazardous blue light quality, temperature current in the transistor. For a n-p-n transistor,
dependence, voltage sensitivity, high initial the arrow points away from the base to the
cost.
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emitter and for a p-n-p transistor, it points Depletion region: The depletion regions are
away form the emitter, towards the base. This formed at the emitter-base junction and the
is shown in the Fig. 16.18 (a). base-collector junction.
In an n-p-n transistor, a p-type Current: The emitter current IE, the base
semiconductor (base) layer separates two current IB and the collector current IC is as
layers of the n-type semiconductor (emitter indicated in the Fig. 16.19 (d).
and collector). It is obtained by growing a thin Resistance: The emitter-base junction has low
layer of p-type semiconductor in between two resistance while the base-collector junction
has a high resistance.
There are two p-n junctions in a transistor,
the emitter-base (E-B) junction and the
n-p-n collector-base (E-B) junction, and they can be
biased in different ways. In the most common
method of biasing a transistor, the emitter base
junction is forward biased and the collector
base junction is reverse biased. This helps an
p-n-p
easy flow of the majority carriers supplied by
Fig. 16.18 (b): Structure of a BJT.
relatively thick layers of n type semiconductor. the emitter through the transistor.
Similarly, for a p-n-p transistor, a n-type Use your brain power
semiconductor (base) layer separates two
layers of p-type semiconductor (emitter and What would happen if both junctions of a
collector). It is obtained by growing a thin BJT are forward biased or reverse biased?
layer of n-type semiconductor in between two
relatively thick layers of p type semiconductor. Working of a n-p-n transistor:
The three layers of a transistor are the Emitter Electrons are the majority carriers in the
(E), the Base (b) and the Collector (C) emitter of a n-p-n transistor. The emitter current
(Fig.16.18 (b)). IE is due to electrons. The current flowing
through the E-B junction is large because it is
A transistor can be thought to be two
forward biased. The current flowing through
junction diodes connected back to back. This
the B-C junction is also large though the
two-diode analogy is shown in Fig.16.19 (c).
junction is reverse biased. It is interesting to
E C E C
know how this is possible.

B B
p-n-p n-p-n
Fig. 16.18: (c) Two-diode Analogy of a BJT .
Emitter: It is a thick heavily doped layer. This Fig. 16.19 (a): Biasing of n-p-n transistor.
supplies a large number of majority carriers Figure 16.19 (a) shows typical biasing
for the current flow through the transistor circuit of a n-p-n transistor. At the instant the
Base: It is the thin, central layer which is forward bias is applied to the E-B junction,
lightly doped compared to the emitter. electrons in the emitter region (n-type) have
Collector: It is on the other side of the base. not entered the base region (p-type) as shown
It is also a lightly doped layer. Its doping is in Fig. 16.19 (b).
about ten times lighter than that of the base. Its - +
area is larger than that of the emitter and the
base. This layer collects a major portion of the VEB VCB
majority carriers supplied by the emitter. The + -
collector also helps dissipation of any small Fig. 16.19 (b): Majority carriers in emitter.
amount of heat generated.
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 When the biasing voltage VBE is greater
than the barrier potential (0.6-0.7V for silicon Remember this
transistors, which are commonly used), The lightly doped, thin base region
many electrons enter the base region and sandwiched between the heavily doped
form the emitter current IE as shown in the
emitter region and the intermediate doped
Fig. 16. 19 (c).
collector region plays a crucial role in the
- + transistor action.

VCB
Transistor configuration:
VEB
- The possible configurations of transistor
+
in a circuit are, (a) Common Emitter, CE
Fig. 16.19 (c): Injection of majority carriers
into base.
(b) Common Base, CB and (c) Common
These electrons can now flow in two Collector, CC.
directions. They can either flow through the Common Emitter configuration
base circuit and constitute the base current The emitter of the transistor is common to
(IB), or they can also flow through the collector both the input and the output, Fig. 16.20 (a).
circuit and contribute towards the collector
current (IC). The base current is small (about
5% of IE) because the base is thin and also, it
is lightly doped compared to the emitter.
The base of a transistor plays a crucial
role in its action. Electrons injected from the
Fig. 16.20 (a): Common emitter configuration.
emitter into the base diffuse into the collector-
base depletion region due to the thin base Common Base configuration
region. When the electrons enter the collector- The base of the transistor is common to
base depletion region, they are pushed into both the input and the output, Fig. 16.20 (b).
the collector region by the electric field at the
collector-base depletion region. The collector
current (IC) flows through the external circuit
as shown in Fig. 19.16 (d). The collector
current IC is about 95% of IE.
Fig. 16.20 (b): Common base configuration.
Majority of the electrons injected by the
Common Collector configuration
The collector of the transistor is common
to both the input and the output, Fig. 16.20 (c).

Fig. 16.19 (d): Electron flow through a

transistor.
emitter into the base are thus collected by the
collector and flow through the collector circuit.
A p-n-p transistor works exactly the same
way except that the majority carriers are now Fig. 16.20 (c): Common collector configuration.
holes. 16.4.1 The Common Emitter (CE)
From the schematic working shown in Fig. Configuration
16.19, we can write IE = IB + IC. Since the base We will discuss the common emitter
current IB is very small we can write IC | IE. configuration in some details because it is the
most commonly used configuration.

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 In the Common Emitter or grounded Since the electrical relationship between
emitter configuration, the input signal is these three currents IB, IC and IE is determined
applied between the base and the emitter, while by the physical construction of the transistor
the output is obtained between the collector itself, any small change in the base current
and the emitter as shown in the Fig. 16.21.
(IB), will result in a much larger change in the
IC collector current (IC). Thus, a small change
in current flowing in the base will control the
IB VCE
current in the emitter-collector circuit. Typical
Vin
IE RL Vout value of EDC is between 20 and 200 for most
general purpose transistors. So if a transistor
VBE has a EDC = 100, then one electron will flow
from the base terminal for every 100 electrons
Fig.16.21: The Common Emitter configuration.
The common emitter amplifier flowing between the emitter-collector terminal.
configuration, to be discussed in section 16.4.2 The Common Emitter (CE)
16.4.3, produces the highest current and characteristic:
power gain of all the three bipolar transistor A typical circuit used to study the common
configurations. This is mainly because the emitter (CE) characteristic is shown in the
input impedance is low as it is connected to a Fig. 16.22.
forward biased p-n junction, while the output
impedance is high as it is taken from a reverse
biased p-n junction.
In this type of configuration, the current
flowing out of the transistor must be equal to
the currents flowing into the transistor as the
emitter current is given by,
IE = IC + IB --- (16.1)
As the load resistance ( RL ) is connected
Fig. 16.22: Circuit to study Common Emitter
in series with the collector, the current gain of (CE) characteristic.
the common emitter transistor configuration The Input characteristics:
is quite large. The current gain is called the The variation of base current IB with
current amplification factor and is defined as base-emitter voltage, VBE , is called input
the ratio characteristic. While studying the dependence
EDC = IC/IB --- (16.2) of IB on VBE , the collector-emitter voltage VCE
Similarly, the ratio of the collector current is kept fixed. The characteristic is shown in the
and the emitter current is defined as Fig. 16.23.
DDC = IC/IE --- (16.3) As we can see from the figure, initially,
the current is very small till the barrier potential
The ratios DDC and EDC are related. is overcome. When the voltage VBE is more
From Eq. (16.1) and Eq. (16.2) we have, than the barrier potential, the characteristic is
IC = D IE = EIB --- (16.4) similar to that of a forward biased diode.
The input dynamic resistance ri of a
L
 DC  --- (16.5) transistor is defined as the ratio of the change
L 1 in the base-emitter voltage and the resulting
 change in the base current at a constant
and L DC  --- (16.6) collector-base voltage.
 1

359
 &V discuss an amplifier using an n-p-n transistor
ri z BE --- (16.7) in common emitter configuration. Figure 16.25
&I B
shows a typical circuit used for transistor
for VCE constant. amplifier.
A small sinusoidal input signal is
superimposed on the DC bias as shown in the
Fig. 16.25. The base current IB and the collector
current IC will have these sinusoidal variations
superimposed on them. This causes the output
voltage VO also to change sinusoidally. A
capacitor is connected in the output circuit to
block the DC component. A load resistance RL
is connected in the collector circuit. Output is
obtained across this resistance.
Fig. 16.23: The Input characteristics
The output characteristic of a transistor is
shown in the Fig. 16.24 RL
The variation of the collector current
IC with variation in the collector-emitter
voltage is called the output characteristic of
a transistor. The base current IB is constant at
this time. From the curve we can see that the,
collector current IC is independent of VCE as Fig. 16.25: Typical transistor amplifier circuit.
long as the collector-emitter junction is reverse Working of the amplifier:
biased. Also, the collector current IC is large Let us discuss the working of the amplifier
for large values of the base current IB when VCE when the input signal vi is not applied. Consider
is constant. the output loop. We have, from the Kirchhoff’s
The output dynamic resistance ro of a law,
transistor is defined as the ratio of the change VCC = VCE + ICRL --- (16.9)
in the collector-emitter voltage VCE and the Similarly, for the input loop we have,
change in the collector current IC for constant VBB = VBE + IBRB --- (16.10)
base current IB.
When AC signal voltage vi is applied at
&V
ro   CE --- (16.8) the input, there will be a change in the emitter-
&I C base voltage and hence the emitter current. As
the emitter current changes, collector current
also changes.
In equation, Eqn. (16.9) as the collector current
IC changes, the collector voltage VCE changes
accordingly because VCC is fixed. This change
in the collector voltage VCE appears as amplified
output of the input variation.
Changes in the base current cause changes
in the collector current. We will now define the
AC current gain E AC.
Fig. 16.24: The Input characteristics i
16.4.3 Transistor as an Amplifier: L AC  C
iB
Amplifier is a device which is used for The AC current gain E AC is almost the
increasing the amplitude of the alternating same as the DC current gain E DC for normal
signal (voltage, current or power). We will operating voltages.
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The changes in the base current IB cause states (i.e. values), either low (0 V) or high
changes in the collector current IC. This (+5 V) value. An electronic circuit that handles
changes the voltage drop across the load only a digital signal is called a digital circuit,
resistance because VCC is constant. We can and the branch of electronics which deals with
write, digital circuits is called digital electronics.
&VCC  &VCE  RL I C  0 , therefore, Logic gate:
A digital circuit with one or more input
&VCE   RL I C signals but only one output signal is called a
The change in the out put voltage 'VCE  logic gate. It is a switching circuit that follows
is the output voltage Vo hence we can write, curtain logical relationship between the input
and output voltages. Therefore, they are
Vo  &VCE  L AC RL &I B
generally known as logic gates; gates because
We now define the voltage gain Av of the they control the flow of signal or information .
amplifier as, The output of a logic gate can have only one
v &V
Av   o   CE  of the two possible states, i.e., either a high
v i ri &I B voltage or low voltage.
The voltage gain is hence given by, Analog signal
Digital signal
L R Volt Volt
Av    AC L
ri
The negative sign indicates that the output
Time Time
voltage and the input voltage are out of phase.
We know that there is also a current gain E AC (a) (b)
in the common emitter configuration. We can 16.26: (a) Analogue signal (b) Digital signal
therefore write the power gain Ap as, Whether the output voltage of a logic gate
Ap = E AC Av is high (1) or low (0) will depend upon the
We have ignored the negative sign for condition at its input. There are five common
the voltage gain to write the magnitude. A logic gates, viz., the NOT gate, the AND gate,
transistor can be used to gain power because the OR gate, the NAND gate, and the NOR
L AC  1 . gate. Each logic gate is indicated by a symbol
and its function is defined by a truth table. A
Use your brain power truth table shows all possible combinations
of the input and corresponding outputs. The
If a transistor amplifies power, explain truth table defines the function of a logic gate.
why it is not used to generate power. Truth tables help understand the behaviour of
a logic gate. All logic gates can be analysed by
16.5 Logic Gates constructing a truth table. The mathematical
In XIth Std. we studied continuously statement that provides the relationship
varying signals (voltage or current). These between the input and the output of a logic gate
are is called analog signals. For example, is called a Boolean expression. We will study
a sinusoidal voltage is an analog signal these basic logic gates at an elementary level.
Fig. 16.26 (a). In an analog electronic circuit, 16.5.1 NOT Gate :
the output signal varies continuously according This is the most basic logic gate. It has
to the input signal. one input and one output. It produces a ‘high’
A signal (voltage or current) which can output or output ‘1’ if the input is ‘0’. When
have only two discrete values is called a the input is ‘high’ or ‘1’, its out put is ‘low’
digital signal. For example, a square wave or ‘0’. That is, it produces a negated version
is a digital signal Fig. 16.26 (b). In digital of the input at its output. This is why it is also
circuit, the output voltage can have only two
361
known as an inverter. The symbol and the truth An AND gate has two or more inputs and
table for a NOT gate is shown in Fig. 16.27. one output. The AND operation represents a
The Boolean equation of a NOT gate is: logical multiplication. The output Y of AND
gate is high or 1 only when input A and input B
Y = X
Y = X are both 1 or both are high simultaneously. The
Input Output logic symbol and truth table for this gate are
given in Fig. 16.29. The Boolean expression
Input Output for an AND gate is :
Y=A·B
X Y
16.5.4 NAND Gate:
0 1 The NAND gate is formed by connecting
1 0 the output of a NOT gate to the input of an
Fig. 16.27 : NOT gate symbol and its AND gate. The output of a NAND gate is
Truth table. exactly opposite to that of an AND gate. If the
16.5.2 OR Gate: inputs A and B are both high or ‘1’, the output
An OR gate has two or more inputs and Y is negation, i.e., the output is low or ‘0’. The
one output. It is also called logical addition. gate derives its name from this NOT-AND
The output Y is 1 or high when either input behaviour. Figure 16.30 shows the symbol and
A or input B or both are 1, that is, if any one the truth table of a NAND gate. The Boolean
of the input is high or both inputs are high, the expression for a NAND gate is:
output is ‘1’ or high. The symbol and the truth Y =A ˜ B
table for an OR gate are shown in Fig. 16.28.
The Boolean expression for an OR gate is : A .
B Y = AB
Y=A+B
Input Output
A Input A Input B Output Y
B Y = A+B
Input Output 0 0 1
0 1 1
Input A Input B Output Y 1 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1
0 1 1 Fig .16.30 : NAND gate symbol and its
1 1 1
Truth table.
Fig. 16.28 : OR gate symbol and its Truth 16.5.5 NOR Gate:
table. The NOR gate is formed by connecting
the output of a NOT gate to the input of an
16.5.3 AND Gate: OR gate. The output of a NOR gate is exactly
A .
opposite to that of an OR gate. The output Y
B Y = AB of a NOR gate is high or 1 only when both
Input Output the inputs are low or 0. The symbol and truth
Input A Input B Output Y table for NOR gate is given in Fig. 16.31. The
Boolean expression for a NOR gate is:
0 0 0
0 1 0 Y =A + B
1 0 0 NAND gate and NOR gate are called
1 1 1 Universal Gates because any gate can be
implemented by the combination of NAND
Fig 16.29 : AND gate symbol and its Truth table
gates or NOR gates.

362
 A Figure 16.32 shows the symbol and truth
B Y = A+B table of two input x-OR gate.
Input Output

Input A Input B Output Y Symbol Truth Table

0 0 1
0 1 0 2-input Ex-OR Gate A B C
1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0
Fig. 16.31: NOR gate symbol and its A C
B 1 0 1
Truth table. Input Output 0 1 1
16.5.6 Exclusive OR/ X-OR Gate : A†B
The Exclusive-OR logic function is a very 1 1 0
useful circuit that can be used in many different Boolean Expression The output is 'high'
types of computational circuits. The ability of C = A† B when either of the
the Exclusive-OR gate to compare two logic inputs A or B is
levels and produce an output value dependent high, but not if both
upon the input condition is very useful in A and B are high.
computational logic circuits. The output of an Fig. 16.32: Two input X-OR gate symbol and
Exclusive-OR gate goes 'HIGH' only when its its Truth table.
two input terminals are at different logic levels
with respect to each other. An odd number of Internet my friend
high or '1' at its input gives high or '1' at the
output. These two inputs can be at high level 1. https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-cell/
('1') or at low level ('0') giving us the Boolean 2. https://www.electrical4u.com/photodiode/
3. https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-cell/
expression:
4. https://www.electrical4u.com/working-
C = (A W B) = A " B A " B principle-of-light-emitting-diode/

Exercises

1 Choose the correct option. (C) holes and electrons recombine

i) In a BJT, largest current flow occurs (D) junction becomes hot
(A) in the emitter v) Solar cell operates on the principle of:
(B) in the collector (A) diffusion
(C) in the base (B) recombination
(D) through CB junction (C) photo voltaic action
ii) A series resistance is connected in the (D) carrier flow
Zener diode circuit to iv) A logic gate is an electronic circuit which:
(A) Properly reverse bias the Zener (A) makes logical decisions
(B) Protect the Zener (B) allows electron flow only in one
direction
(C) Properly forward bias the Zener
(C) works using binary algebra
(D) Protect the load resistance
(D) alternates between 0 and 1 value
iii) A LED emits visible light when its
2 Answer in brief.
(A) junction is reverse biased i) Why is the base of a transistor made thin
(B) depletion region widens and is lightly doped?

363
ii) How is a Zener diode different than an 13. What are the uses of logic gates? Why is
ordinary diode? a NOT gate known as an inverter?
iii) On which factors does the wavelength of 14. Write the Boolean expression for (i) OR
light emitted by a LED depend? gate, (ii) AND gate, and (iii) NAND
iv) Why should a photodiode be operated in Gate.
reverse biased mode? 15. Why is the emitter, the base and the
v) State the principle and uses of a solar collector of a BJT doped differently?
Cell. 16. Which method of biasing is used for
3. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave operating transistor as an amplifier?
rectifier. Explain its working. What is the 17. Define D and E. Derive the relation
frequency of ripple in its output? between then.
4. Why do we need filters in a power supply? 18. The common-base DC current gain of a
5. Draw a neat diagram of a full wave transistor is 0.967. If the emitter current is
rectifier and explain it’s working. 10mA. What is the value of base current?
6. Explain how a Zener diode maintains [Ans: 0.33mA]
constant voltage across a load. 19. In a comman-base connection, a certain
7. Explain the forward and the reverse transistor has an emitter current of
characteristic of a Zener diode. 10mA and collector current of 9.8 mA.
8. Explain the working of a LED. Calculate the value of the base current.
9. Explain the construction and working of [Ans: 0.2mA]
solar cell. 20. In a common-base connection, the emitter
10. Explain the principle of operation of a current is 6.28mA and collector current is
photodiode. 6.20 mA. Determine the common base
11. What do you mean by a logic gate, a DC current gain.
truth table and a Boolean expression? [Ans: 0.987]
12. What is logic gate? Write down the truth
table and Boolean expression for ‘AND’
gate.

364