FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR CONDUITS

Laminar flow through circular pipes.

* If the Renolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.
Re = ρVD/μ

 .2 πr.Δx
Flow dr
direction A D R
r
B C
Δx ( p+ (∂p/∂x)Δx)
P π r2

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The viscous fluid is flowing

from left to right in the pipe as shown in fig. Consider a fluid
element of radius r, sliding in a cylindrical fluid element of radius
(r+dr). Let the length of fluid element be Δx. If p is the intensity of
pressure on the face AB, then the intensity of pressure on the
face CD will be ( p+ (∂p/∂x)Δx)
The forces acting on the fluid elements are
1. The pressure force, p x π r2 on the face AB
2. The pressure force, (p+ (∂p/∂x)Δx) π r2 on face CD
3. The shear force,  x 2π r Δx on the surface of fluid
element.
1
 As there is no acceleration hence the summation of all
forces in the direction of flow must be zero.
pπ r2 – ( p+(∂p/∂x) Δx) π r2 - τ X 2π r X Δx = 0
- ∂p/∂x.Δx π.r2 = X 2.π r X Δx
- ∂p/∂x. r = 2.
 = - ∂p/∂x. r /2. …(1)

The shear stress τ across a section varies with r as ∂p/∂x

across a section is constant. Hence shear stress distribution
across a section is linear as shown in fig

Shear stress Velocity

distribution distribution

Velocity distribution. To obtain the velocity distribution across a

section, the value of shear stress
 = μ (du/dy), y is substituted in eqn 1
y = R-r and dy = -dr
 = -μ (du/dr)
Substitute  in eqn 1
du/dr = (1/2) (∂p/∂x) r 2
Integrating w.r.t. r:
u = (1/2) (∂p/∂x) r2/2 + C …(2)
C is the constant of integration, which can be obtained by using
the boundary condition. This condition is that when the radius (r)=
R, the velocity u = 0.
 0 = (1/2) (∂p/∂x) R2/2 + C
C = - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) R2
On substitution in eqn 2:
u = - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) (R2 - r2)
Since ∂p/∂x is -ve in the direction of flow, u is +ve.
u = umax, the maximum velocity at r = 0
 umax = - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) R2
As seen above, the relationship between ‘u’ and ‘r’ is parabolic
and the velocity distribution in a circular pipe for a laminar flow is
a paraboloid of revolution as shown in Fig.

The mean velocity across a section can be calculated by knowing

the discharge which can be obtain by integration since the
velocity distribution is known. For the discharge, let us consider
an annular space at a radius of ‘r’ and thickness ‘dr’ as shown in
the figure.
Discharge through the annular space, dQ = u (2 r x dr)
= - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) (R2 - r2) 2r dr

Integrating for the total discharge,

Q = RdQ =  R - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) (R2 - r2) 2r dr
0 0

R
= - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) 2 [R2 r2/2 - r4/4] 0

= - (1/4) (∂p/∂x) 2 R4/4 3

= - (1/8) (∂p/∂x) R2( R2)

If V is the mean velocity, Q = V x Area of the pipe = V ( R2)
 Q = V ( R2) = - (1/8) (∂p/∂x) R2( R2)
V = = - (1/8) (∂p/∂x) R2
-∂p/∂x = 8 V/R2
Umax/V=2

Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Refer the fig of pressure drop along the pipie line. In sections 1
and 2, as in Fig., at x1 and x2 in the direction of flow at a distance
‘L’ (= x2 - x1) apart. 
x1 
p1 p2
0
L
x2

sketch for pressure drop along the pipeline

The pressure drop (p1 - p2) is given by:

∂p/ ∂x = (p2 - p1)/((x2 - x1) = - (p1 - p2)/L

since p1 > p2
 - ∂ p/∂x = - [- (p1 - p2)/L] = 8 V/R2
(p1 - p2) = 8  V L/R2 = 32  V L/D2 = p
where D is the diameter of the pipe; and p is the pressured
drop between sections 1 and 2.
p = 32  V L/D2

4
 This equation is known in the names of the scientists as
Hagen-Poiseuille equation.
The pressure drop directly varies as the viscosity, the
length, the mean velocity and inversely varies as the square of
the diameter. The roughness of the pipe wall does not enter into
the equation.
Expressing the above equation in terms of piezometric heads:
p1/ - p2/ = h1 - h2 = hl = 32  V L/( D2)
= 32  V L/(g D2)

Head loss between sections 1 and 2, = 32  V L/(g D2)

Hagen-Poiseuille equation is applicable only for laminar flow in

circular pipes and also it has to be noted that it accounts only for
internal losses that arise due to the viscosity of the fluid.

5
Hydraulic gradient line
• The sum of potential head and the pressure
head (P/  + Z) at any point is called the
piezometric head. If a line is drawn joining the
piezometric levels at various points, the line is
called hydraulic gradient line.

Total energy line

• It is known as total head with respect to any
arbitrary datum, is the sum of the elevation head,
pressure head and velocity head
• Total head = P/  + Z+V2/2g

Energy losses
• During fluid flowing through the pipe, the
fluid experiences some resistance due to which
some of the energy of fluid is lost.

8
 HGL and EGL

• It is often convenient to plot

energy graphically using heights.
• Hydraulic Grade Line
• Energy Grade Line (or total
energy)
Types of energy losses

Major energy losses Minor energy losses

This is due to friction and it is This is due to

calculated by the following 1. Sudden expansion
formulae 2. Sudden contraction
3. Bend in pipe
1)Darcy’s weisbach 4. Pipe fittings etc
2)Chezy’s 5. An obstruction in pipe

Laws of fluid friction

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

i) Proportion to the velocity of i) Independent of the pressure
flow. ii) Proportional to the density of
ii) Independent of the pressure flowing fluid
iii) Proportion to the area of iii) Slightly affected by the
surface contact variation of the temperature
iv)Independent to the nature of of the flowing fluid
the surface in contact iv) Proportional to the area of
v) Greatly affected by the surface in contact
variation of the temperature v) Dependent on nature of
of the flowing fluid surface in contact
vi) Proportional to (velocity)n
where the index n varies
from 1.72 to 2.0.

10
Darcy Weisbach Equation
• It is an empirical equation in fluid
mechanics named after Henry Darcy
and Julius Weisbach.
• The Darcy Weisbach Equation relates
the loss of pressure or head loss due to
friction along the given length of pipe to
the average velocity of the fluid flow for
an incompressible fluid.

11
Consider a uniform horizontal pipe with fixed diameter d and
area A, which allows a steady flow of incompressible fluid.

For simplicity consider two sections; 1 and 2 of the pipe

separated by the distance L.

At all the point of 1, The pressure is P1, velocity is V1.

At all the point of 2, the pressure is P2 and velocity is V2.

Consider the fluid flow as shown in figure(1) Thus, the

pressure at 1 is greater than the pressure at 2 i.e.,(P1>P2)

This pressure difference makes the fluid flow along the pipe.

When fluid flows there will be a loss of energy due to

friction. Thus we can apply Bernoulli’s principle. 12
Bernoulli’s principle
• Bernoulli’s principle states that
a decrease in the pressure or
potential energy of the fluid
increases the velocity/speed of
the fluid flow or in other words,
“For an incompressible fluid,
the sum of its potential energy,
pressure, and velocity remains
constant.”

13
14
15
16
17
Head loss in pipes due to friction-Darcy’s Weisbach equation
Consider a horizontal pipe of cross sectional area A
carrying a fluid with a mean velocity V. let 1 and 2 be the two
sections of the pipe L distance apart, where let the intensities of
pressure be P1 and P2 respectively. By applying Bernoulli’s
equation between the section 1 and 2,
1 2

P1 P2

2
1 L

P1/  +V12/2g+Z1 = P2/  +V22/2g+Z2

Since V1= V2 = V and Z1 = Z2
Loss of head = Hf= P1/  - P2/ 
The pressure intensity will be reduced by the frictional
resistance in the direction of flow and the difference of pressure
heads between any two sections is equal to the loss of head due
to friction between these sections.
Further let f’ be the frictional resistance per unit area at
unit velocity, then frictional resistance
= f’ X area X Vn
= f’ X pL X Vn
Where p is the wetted perimeter of the pipe.
18
The pressure force at the sections 1 and 2 are (P1A) and
(P2A) respectively. Thus resolving all the forces horizontally.
We have,
P1A = P2A + frictional resistance
or (P1-P2)A = f’ X pL X Vn
(P1-P2) = f’ (p/A) X LVn
Dividing both sides by specific weight  of the flowing fluid
(P1-P2)/  = (f’/ ) X (p/A) X LVn
hf = (P1-P2)/  , then
hf= (f’/ ) X (p/A) X LVn
The ratio of the cross-sectional area of the flow (wetted
area) to the perimeter in contact with the fluid (wetted perimeter)
(A/p) is called hydraulic mean depth and it is represented by ‘m’
Then hf = (f’/ ) X (LVn/m)
Determine m, when pipe running full
m = (A/P) = (D/4)
n = 2 ( n is an Index varies from 1.72 to 2)
hf = 4f’LV2/ D - f’ – frictional resistance
Multiplying and dividing this equation by 2g:
hf = 4 (2g f/) (L/D) (V2/2g)
Let 2g f/ = f
hf = 4f. L V2/2gD - f – Darcy or co-efficient of friction
Let f1 = 4f = f1.LV2/2gD f1- Friction factor
f = 16/Re for Re < 2000; f= 0.0791/(Re)1/4 for Re >4000 to 106
19
MOODY CHART FOR ESTIMATING FRICTION FACTORS

A Moody Chart (or Moody Diagram) is used to estimate the

friction factor for fluid flow in a pipe. The chart represents
friction factor as a function of Reynolds number and the ratio
between internal pipe roughness and pipe diameter, or relative
roughness, ε/D.

21
22
If the relative roughness of a pipe is 0.001, find the corresponding
curve from the right side of the Moody diagram (1).

23
24
 Fully Developed Pipe Flow
Friction Factor
• Moody chart was developed for circular pipes,
but can be used for non-circular pipes using
hydraulic diameter
• Colebrook equation is a curve-fit of the data
which is convenient for computations

6 
10   10  2
D
5000  Re  10 8

• Both Moody chart and Colebrook equation are

accurate to ±15% due to roughness size,
experimental error, curve fitting of data, etc.

64
f  For Laminar flow
R
Chezy’s Formula for Loss of Head due to Friction
Consider uniform horizontal pipe as shown in and
Equation derived in Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Where is, hf = (f’/ρg)(P/A)LV2
m = A/P = π/4d2 / πd = d/4, P/A = 1/m
hf = f’/ρg. 1/m. L V2
V2 = hf. ρg.m / f’.L
V = √ ρg / f'. hf / L. m
Consider √ ρg/ f' = C i.e. Chezy’s constant and
hf / L = i i.e. loss of head per unit length of pipe.
Put the above value in Equation,
V = C√m i
This is known as Chezy’s formula.
Relation between the friction factor f and the
chezy’s constant C:
Head loss due to Darcy Equation,
hf = fLV2/ 2gd
V = C √m i
f = 8g / C2
This is the required relation between Darcy’s coefficient
and Chezy’s Constant.
27
28
29
Minor losses
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement:
Due to sudden change of diameter of the pipe, the liquid flowing
from the smaller pipe not able to follow the abrupt change of the
boundary. The flow separate from the boundary and turbulent
eddies are formed. The loss of energy takes place due to the
formation of these eddies.
he = (V1-V2)2/2g

Loss of head due Sudden contraction

hc = kV22 / 2g

k = [(1/Cc-1)]2 ,if the Cc value is assumed to be equal to 0.62,

k = 0.375
Then hc becomes hc = 0.375 V22 / 2g

If the value of Cc is not given the head loss due to contraction is

taken as = 0.5 V22 / 2g - Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe

30
• Loss of head due to sudden
enlargement, he = (V1-V2)2/2g
• Loss of head due Sudden contraction,
hc = 0.5V22 / 2g
• Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe,
hi = 0.5V2 / 2g
• Loss of head at the exit of pipe,
ho = V2/ 2g
• Loss of head due Bend in pipe,
hb = kV2/ 2g
k = Co-efficient of bend
V = Velocity of flow
• Loss of head due Pipe fittings etc=
kV2/ 2g
k = Co-efficient of pipe fittings
Head loss due to obstruction=

31
Loss of head due An obstruction in pipe
= (Vc – V)2/2g
Vc = (A X V) / (Cc (A-a))
Where
a = Max area of obstruction
Cc= Co-efficient of contraction = avc/(A-a)
avc = area at vena contracta

Loss of head at exit of pipe

hO = V2/2g

Flow through pipes in series or compound pipes

The discharge passing through each pipe is same

Q = A1V1 = A2V2 =A3V3
The total head loss during the conveyance
= 0.5V12/2g + 4f1L1V12/2gd1 + 0.5V22/2g+4f2L2V22/2gd2 +
(V2-V3)2/2g +4f3L3V32/2gd3 +V32/2g

If minor losses are neglected

34
H= 4f1L1V12/2gd1 + 4f2L2V22/2gd2 +4f3L3V32/2gd3
Flow through parallel pipes
Pipe 2
Q2

L2,d2,V2
Q Q

L1,d1,V1

Q1 Pipe 1

The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum

of rate of flow through branch pipes.
Q = Q1 +Q2
In this set up, the loss of head for each branch pipe
is same.
Loss of head pipe 1 = Loss of head pipe 2
4f1L1V12/2gd1 = 4f2L2V22/2gd2
if f1 = f2 ; L1V12/2gd1 = L2V22/2gd2
 Find the loss of head when a
pipe of diameter 200mm is
suddenly enlarged to a
diameter of 400mm. The rate
of flow of water through the
pipe is 250 litres/s.
• Solution:
• Dia.of smaller pipe, D1=200mm=0.20m
• A1 =
• Dia.of larger pipe, D2=0.4m
• A2=
• Q= 250 litres/s

• V1= Q/A1, V2= Q/A2

• Loss of head due to sudden
enlargement, he = (V1-V2)2/2g

36
 The rate of flow of water through a
horizontal pipe is 0.25m3/s. The diameter
of the pipe which is 200mm is suddenly
enlarged to 400mm. The pressure
intensity in the smaller pipe is
11.772 N/cm2. Determine,
i) loss of head due to sudden enlargement,
ii) pressure intensity in the large pipe,
iii) power lost due to enlargement

Solution:
Q= 0.25m3/s
Dia. Of smaller pipe, D1= 0.2m
Area, A1 =

Dia.of larger pipe, D2=0.4m

Area, A2=
V1= Q/A1, V2= Q/A2
Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,
he = (V1-V2)2/2g

37
• Pressure in smaller pipe, p1= 11.772 N/cm2

Let the pressure intensity in large pipe= p2

Apply Bernoulli’s equation before and after the sudden

enlargement,

iii) Power lost due to sudden enlargement,

P= ρg. Q. he / 1000

38
The difference in water surface
levels in two tanks, which are
connected by three pipes in
series of lengths 300m, 170m
and 210m and of diameters
300mm, 200mm and 400mm
respectively, is 12m.
Determine the rate of flow of
water if coefficient of friction
are 0.005, 0.0052 and 0.0048
respectively, considering (i)
minor losses also ii) neglecting
minor losses.

39
Solution:
Difference of water level, H=12m
Length of pipe 1, L1 = 300m,
d1 = 0.3m
Length of pipe 2, L2 = 170m,
d2 = 0.2m
Length of pipe 3, L3 = 210m,
d3 = 0.4m
f1 = 0.005, f2 = 0.0052 and f3 =0.0048

40
A main pipe divides into two
parallel pipes which again
forms one pipe. The length and
diameter for the first parallel
pipe are 2000m and 1.0m
respectively, while the length
and diameter of 2nd parallel
pipe are 2000m and 0.8m. Find
the rate of flow in each parallel
pipe, if total flow in the main is
3.0m3/s. The coefficient of
friction for each parallel pipe is
same and equal to 0.005.

41
Two sharp ended pipes of
diameters 50mm and 100mm
respectively, each of length
100m are connected in parallel
between two reservoirs which
have a difference of level of
10m. If the coefficient of friction
for each pipe is (4f) 0.32.
calculate the rate of flow for
each pipe and also the
diameter of a single pipe 100m
long which would give the
same discharge, if it were
substituted for the original two
pipes.

42
Boundary layer
When a real fluid flows past a solid
surface, the velocity of the fluid at the
solid surface must be the same as that of
the solid surface. If the velocity of solid
surface is stationary, the velocity of the
fluid at the surface must be zero.

U Y<δ 0<u<0.99U
u = 0.99U
Y=δ u = 0.99U
Y>δ 0.99 < u<U
δ 43
Smooth surface
 The narrow region where u = 0.99U, near the solid
surface, over which velocity gradient and shear stress are large is
known as boundary layer.
The subject concerned with the study of velocity
gradients, shear stress, forces and energy loss in the boundary
layer is called boundary layer theory.
According to boundary layer theory, the solid boundary
may be divided into two regions
Region 1
Very nearer to solid boundary, where zero velocity at
solid boundary to free stream velocity in the direction normal to
the boundary takes place.
* In this region du/dy exist and fluid exerts a shear stress on the
wall in the direction of motion

Region 2
outside the boundary layer of the fluid where velocity is
constant and equal to free stream velocity.
* du/dy becomes zero
F
Laminar E Turbulent
boundary boundary
Laminar
A B C sub layer
D
Leading
Laminar Transition Turbulent
edge
zone zone zone
The Reynolds number 5 X 105 = (U * x) / 

44
* Though the velocity distribution is parabolic curve in the laminar
sub layer zone, but in the view of the very small thickness we can
reasonably assume that velocity distribution is linear and so the
velocity gradient can be considered constant.
Therefore, the shear stress in the laminar sub layer
would be constant and equal to the boundary shear stress τ0.
Thus the shear stress in the sub-layer is
τ0 = μ (∂u/∂y)y=0 = μ (u/y)
Estimation of boundary layer thickness
Boundary layer thickness (δ)
It is defined as the distance, measured from the
boundary of the solid body measured in the y-direction to the
point, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99
times the free stream velocity (U) of the fluid.
Displacement thickness (δ*)
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to
the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary
layer formation.
Boundary layer
dy C
U u Velocity
distribution
A B
X
Plate

45
 Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity
equal to U over a thin smooth plate as shown in above fig. At a
distance x from the leading edge consider a section . The velocity
of fluid at B is zero and at C, which lies on the boundary layer, is
U. Thus velocity varies from zero at B to U at C, where BC is
equal to the thickness of boundary layer.
Distance BC = δ
Let y = Distance of elemental strip from the plate, dy = Thickness
of the elemental strip, u = Velocity of fluid at the elemental strip,
b = Width of plate
Then area of elemental strip, dA = b X dy
Mass of fluid per second flowing through elemental strip
= ρ X Velocity X Area of elemental strip
= ρu X dA = ρ X u X b X dy …(1)
If there had been no plate, then the fluid would have
been flowing with a constant velocity equal to free-stream velocity
(U) at the section. Then mass of fluid per unit time flowing through
elemental strip would have been.
= ρ X Velocity X Area = ρ X U X b X dy … (2)
As U is more than u, hence due to the presence of the
plate and consequently due to the formation of the boundary
layer, there will be a reduction in mass flowing per second
through the elemental strip.
Reduction in mass of fluid = ρ.U.b.dy – ρ.u.b.dy = ρ b (U-u)dy
Total reduction in mass of fluid’s flowing through BC
=  δ ρ b (U-u)dy =ρb  δ (U-u)dy …(3) 46
0 0
[Fluid is incompressible]
 Let the plate is displaced by a distance δ* and velocity of
flow for the distance δ* is equal to the free stream velocity. Loss
of the mass of the fluid/s flowing through the distance δ*
= ρ X Velocity X Area
= ρ X U X δ* X b …(4)
= Equate eqn 3 and 4
= ρ b 0  δ (U-u)dy = ρ. U.δ*. b
δ* = 1/U 0  δ (U-u)dy [U is constant]
δ* = 0  δ (1-u/U)dy
Momentum thickens (θ)
It is defined as the distance measured perpendicular to
the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be
displaced to compensate for the reduction in momentum of the
flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
Momentum at elemental strip= Mass X Velocity = ρ.u.b.dy.u
Momentum of this fluid in the absence of boundary layer
= ρ.u.b.dy.U
Loss of momentum through elementel strip
= ρ.u.b.dy.U -ρ.u.b.dy.u = ρbu (U-u) dy
Total loss of momentum/s through BC =  δρ.b.u (U-u) dy
0

Let θ = distance by which plate is displaced when the fluid is

flowing with a constant velocity U

47
 Loss of momentum of fluid flowing through distance θ
with a velocity = Mass of fluid (θ) X Velocity
= ρ X Velocity X Area X Velocity [A = b X θ]

= (ρ U θ b) U = ρ θ b U2
ρ θ b U2 =0  δρ.b.u (U-u) dy = ρb0  δu(U-u)dy
[If assumed fluid is incompressible]
θU2 = 0  δu(U-u)dy
θ = 1/U2 0  δu (U-u) dy = 0  δu/U [1- (u/U)]dy
Energy thickness (δ**)
It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to
the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be
displaced to compensate for the reduction in Kinematic energy
of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.
Kinetic energy of this fluid = ½ m X Veloctiy2 = ½ (ρubdy)u2
Kinetic energy of this fluid in the absence of boundary layer
= ½ (ρubdy)U2
Loss of kinetic energy the elemental strip
= ½ (ρubdy)U2 – ½(ρubdy)u2 = ½ ρub [U2 –u2]dy
= 0  δ ½ ρub [U2 –u2]dy = ½ ρb 0 δu(U2-u2)dy
[If fluid is incompressible]

48
Let δ** = distance by which the plate is displaced to compensate
for the reduction in K.E
Loss of K.E through δ** of fluid flowing with velocity U
= ½ (ρX area X velocity)Velocity2 [A = b X δ** ]
= ½(ρX b X δ** X U)U2
= ½ ρ b δ** U3
Equating the two losses of K.E, we get
½ ρ b δ** U3 = 1/2ρb  δ u(U2-u2)dy
0

δ** = 1/U30  δ u (U2-u2)dy

δ** = 0  δu/U [1-(u2/U2)]dy

49
50
51
52
53
54
 Moment of momentum or Angular
Momentum equation
• Motion of a rigid body can be considered to
be the combination of
– the translational motion of its center of mass (Ux,
Uy, Uz)
– the rotational motion about its center of mass
(x, y, z)
• Translational motion can be analyzed with
linear momentum equation.
• Rotational motion is analyzed with angular
momentum equation.
• Together, the body motion can be
described as a 6–degree–of–freedom
(6DOF) system.
 Reynolds—Transport
Theorem (RTT)
• A system is a quantity of matter of fixed
identity. No mass can cross a system
boundary.
• A control volume is a region in space
chosen for study. Mass can cross a
control surface.
• The fundamental conservation laws
(conservation of mass, energy, and
momentum) apply directly to systems.
• However, in most fluid mechanics
problems, control volume analysis is
preferred over system analysis (for the
same reason that the Eulerian
description is usually preferred over the
Lagrangian description).
• Therefore, we need to transform the
conservation laws from a system to a
control volume. This is accomplished
with the Reynolds transport theorem
(RTT).
 Reynolds—Transport Theorem
(RTT)

There is a direct analogy between the

transformation from Lagrangian to Eulerian
descriptions (for differential analysis using
infinitesimally small fluid elements) and the
transformation from systems to control volumes
(for integral analysis using large, finite flow fields).
• Material derivative (differential analysis):
Db b  

Dt t
 V  b  
• General RTT, nonfixed CV (integral analysis):

dBsys   
   b  dV  CS bV ndA
dt CV t
• Interpretation of the RTT:
– Time rate of change of the property B of
the system is equal to (Term 1) + (Term
2)
– Term 1: the time rate of change of B of
the control volume
– Term 2: the net flux of B out of the
control volume by mass crossing the
control surface

RTT Special Cases

For moving and/or deforming control
volumes,
dBsys   

CV t
  b  dV    bV ndA
dt CS

• Where the absolute velocity V in the second

term is replaced by the relative velocity
Vr = V -VCS
• Vr is the fluid velocity expressed relative to a
coordinate system moving with the control
volume.
 For steady flow, the time derivative
drops out,
0
dBsys     
   b  dV  CS  bVr ndA  CS bVr ndA
dt CV t
For control volumes with well-defined
inlets and outlets

dBsys d
   bdV    avg bavgVr ,avg A    avg bavgVr ,avg A
dt dt CV
out in
60
61
62
63
64
65
66