[CSED261] Discrete Mathematics for Computer Science

Lecture 2
Propositional Logic

Suha Kwak
[email protected]
Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering
 Logic
• Logic
• Study of valid reasoning
• Fundamental to CS
• Allows to represent knowledge in a precise, mathematical way
• Enables valid inferences using a set of precise rules
• Applications in CS
• Classical AI
• Programming languages
• Databases
• Computer architecture
• Automated testing and program analysis
• … and many others

• Simplest logic = propositional logic

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 Summary
• The language of propositions
• Connectives
• Truth values
• Truth tables
• Applications
• Translating English sentences
• System specifications
• Logic puzzles
• Logic circuits
• Logical equivalences
• Important equivalences
• Showing equivalence
• Satisfiability
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Propositional Logic

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 Propositional Logic
• A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true
or false, but not both.

• Are the following sentences propositions?

• Toronto is the capital of Canada. >> Yes
• Read this carefully. >> No
• 1+2=3 >> Yes
• 𝑥𝑥 + 1 = 2 >> No
• What time is it? >> No

• Propositional logic
• The area of logic that deals with propositions
• The branch of logic that studies ways of joining and/or
modifying propositions to form more complicated ones

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 Propositional Logic
• Constructing propositions
• Propositional variables: 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟, 𝑠𝑠, …
• The proposition that is always true is denoted by 𝑇𝑇 and the
proposition that is always false is denoted by 𝐹𝐹.
• Compound propositions constructed from logical connectives
and other propositions
• Connectives
Negation ¬
Conjunction ∧
Disjunction ∨
Exclusive OR ⨁
Implication →
Biconditional

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 Negation
• The negation of a proposition 𝑝𝑝 is denoted by ¬𝑝𝑝
and has the following truth table:
𝑝𝑝 ¬𝑝𝑝
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇

• Example
• The negation of the proposition “Today is Friday.” is “It is not
the case that today is Friday.”; in simple English, “It is not Friday
today.”
• The negation of the proposition “At least 10 inches of rain fell
today in Miami.” is “Less than 10 inches of rain fell today in
Miami.”

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 Conjunction
• The conjunction of propositions 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 is denoted by
𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 and has the following truth table:
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹

• Example
• If 𝑝𝑝 is “Today is Friday.” and 𝑞𝑞 denotes “It is raining today.”
then 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 denotes “Today is Friday and it is raining today.”
This proposition is true on rainy Fridays.

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 Disjunction
• The disjunction of propositions 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 is denoted by
𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 and has the following truth table:
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹

• Example
• If 𝑝𝑝 denotes “I am at home.” and 𝑞𝑞 denotes “It is raining.”
then 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 denotes “I am at home or it is raining.”

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 The Connective OR in English
• In English, OR has two distinct meanings.
• Inclusive OR
• “Students who have taken C1 or C2 may take this class.”
 The students have taken at least one of the two courses.
• Identical to the disjunction
• Exclusive OR (⨁)
• “Soup or salad comes with the entrée.”
 Only one of them will be served.
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇
One of 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 must be true, 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
but not both. 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
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 Implication
• If 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are propositions, then 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 is a conditional
statement or implication, which is read as “if 𝑝𝑝, then 𝑞𝑞”
and has this truth table:
𝑝𝑝 (antecedent) 𝑞𝑞 (consequent) 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇

• Example
• If you get 100% on the final, then you will get an A.
• If I am elected, then I will lower taxes.

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 Implication
• Understanding implication
• In 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞, there does not need to be any connection between
the antecedent and the consequent.
• The “meaning” of 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 depends only on the truth values of
𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞.
• These implications are perfectly fine, but would not be used in
ordinary English.
• “If the moon is made of green cheese then I’m a king.”
• “If 1 + 1 = 3, then your grandma wears combat boots.”

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 Implication
• Different ways of expressing 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞
• If 𝑝𝑝, then 𝑞𝑞 • 𝑝𝑝 implies 𝑞𝑞
• If 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞 • 𝑝𝑝 only if 𝑞𝑞
• 𝑞𝑞 if 𝑝𝑝 • 𝑞𝑞 when 𝑝𝑝
• 𝑝𝑝 is sufficient for 𝑞𝑞 • 𝑞𝑞 whenever 𝑝𝑝
• 𝑞𝑞 is necessary for 𝑝𝑝 • 𝑞𝑞 follows from 𝑝𝑝
• A sufficient condition for 𝑞𝑞 is 𝑝𝑝. • 𝑞𝑞 unless ¬𝑝𝑝
• A necessary condition for 𝑝𝑝 is 𝑞𝑞.

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 Converse, Contrapositive, and Inverse
• From 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞, we can form new conditional statements.
• Converse: 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑝𝑝
• Contrapositive: ¬𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑝𝑝
• Inverse: ¬𝑝𝑝 → ¬𝑞𝑞

• Find the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of

“It’s raining is a sufficient condition for my not going to town.”
𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 where “𝑝𝑝 = it’s rainy.” and “𝑞𝑞 = I’m not going to town.”
Converse of 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ⇔ 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑝𝑝
⇔ “If I’m not going to town, it’s raining.”
Inverse of 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ⇔ ¬𝑝𝑝 → ¬𝑞𝑞
⇔ “If it’s not raining, I’m going to town.”
contrapositive of 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ⇔ ¬𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑝𝑝
⇔ “If I’m going to town, it is not raining.”
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 Biconditional
• If 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are propositions, then one can form the
biconditional proposition 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞, “𝑝𝑝 if and only if 𝑞𝑞.”
• The biconditional 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 denotes the proposition with
this truth table:
𝑝𝑝 (antecedent) 𝑞𝑞 (consequent) 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇

• Example
• If 𝑝𝑝 denotes “I am at home.” and 𝑞𝑞 denotes “It is raining.”,
then 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 denotes “I am at home if and only if it is raining.”
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 Biconditional
• Alternative ways 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 is expressed in English
• 𝑝𝑝 is necessary and sufficient for 𝑞𝑞.
• If 𝑝𝑝 then 𝑞𝑞, and conversely.
• 𝑝𝑝 iff 𝑞𝑞.

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 Truth Tables for Compound Propositions
• A way to construct a truth table:
• A row for every possible combination of values for the atomic
propositions
• A column for the truth value of each expression (including the
atomic propositions) occurring in the compound proposition

• Example: 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 ¬𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮

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 Equivalent Propositions
• Two propositions are equivalent if they always have the
same truth value.

• Example:
• Show using a truth table that the implication is equivalent to
the contrapositive.
• Solution:
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 ¬ 𝑝𝑝 ¬ 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ¬𝑞𝑞 → ¬ 𝑝𝑝
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇

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 Equivalent Propositions
• Two propositions are equivalent if they always have the
same truth value.

• Example:
• Show using a truth table that neither the converse nor inverse
of an implication are not equivalent to the implication.
• Solution:
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 ¬ 𝑝𝑝 ¬ 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ¬ 𝑝𝑝 → ¬ 𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞 → 𝑝𝑝
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇

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 Applications of
Propositional Logic

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 Translating English Sentences
• Steps to convert an English sentence to a statement in
propositional logic
• Identify atomic propositions and represent them using
propositional variables.
• Determine appropriate logical connectives.

• Example
• “If I go to Harry’s or to the country, I will not go shopping.”
𝑝𝑝 = “I go to Harry’s.”
𝑞𝑞 = “I go to the country.”
𝑟𝑟 = “I will go shopping.”

If 𝑝𝑝 or 𝑞𝑞 then not 𝑟𝑟.

𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑟𝑟
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 Translating English Sentences
• Example (cont’d)
• “You can access the Internet from campus only if you are a
computer science major or you are not a freshman.”
𝑝𝑝 = “You can access the Internet from campus.”
𝑞𝑞 = “You major in computer science.”
𝑟𝑟 = “You are a freshman.”

𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟

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 System Specification
• System and Software engineers take requirements in
English and express them in a precise specification
language based on logic.

• Express in propositional logic:

• “The auto-reply cannot be sent when the file system is full.”
𝑝𝑝 = “The automated reply can be sent.”
𝑞𝑞 = “The file system is full.”

𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑝𝑝

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 Consistent System Specification
• A list of propositions is consistent if it is possible to assign
truth values to the proposition variables so that each
proposition is true.
τ
• Are these specifications consistent?
• “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is
retransmitted.” 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞
• “If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is
retransmitted.” (𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞)
• “The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.” ¬𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝 = “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer.”
𝑞𝑞 = “The diagnostic message is retransmitted.”

When 𝑝𝑝 is false and 𝑞𝑞 is true, all three statements are true!

The specifications are consistent.
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 Consistent System Specification
• Are these specifications consistent?
• “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is
retransmitted.” 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞
• “If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is
retransmitted.” (𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞)
• “The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.” ¬𝑝𝑝
• “The diagnostic message is not retransmitted.” ¬𝑞𝑞
𝑝𝑝 = “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer.”
𝑞𝑞 = “The diagnostic message is retransmitted.”

There is no satisfying assignment.

The specifications are inconsistent.

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 Logic Puzzles
• An island has two kinds of inhabitants, knights, who
always tell the truth, and knaves, who always lie.

• You go to the island and meet A and B.

• A says “B is a knight.”
• B says “The two of us are of opposite types.”

• What are the types of A and B?

Raymond Smullyan
(Born 1919)
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 Logic Puzzles (cont’d)
• Solution:
• 𝑎𝑎 = “A is a knight .” (¬𝑎𝑎 = “A is a knave.”)
• 𝑏𝑏 = “B is a knight.” (¬𝑏𝑏 = “B is a knave.”)
• If A is a knight, 𝑎𝑎 is true. Since knights tell the truth, B is a
knight as well. Then 𝑎𝑎 ∧ ¬𝑏𝑏 ∨ ¬𝑎𝑎 ∧ 𝑏𝑏 would have to be
true according to the statement of B, but it is not. So, A is not a
knight and therefore ¬𝑎𝑎 must be true.
• If A is a knave, then B must not be a knight since knaves always
lie. Then both ¬𝑎𝑎 and ¬𝑏𝑏 hold since both are knaves.

Raymond Smullyan
(Born 1919)
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 Logic Circuits
• Electronic circuits
• Each input/output signal can be viewed as a 0 or 1.
• 0 represents False.
• 1 represents True.

• Complicated circuits are constructed from three basic

circuits called gates.

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 Logic Circuits
• More complicated digital circuits can be constructed by
combining these basic circuits.
• Building a circuit for each piece of the output expression
• Combining them

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Propositional Equivalences

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 Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency
• Tautology
• A proposition which is always true
• Example: 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝

• Contradiction
• A proposition which is always false
• Example: 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝𝑝

• Contingency
• A proposition which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction

𝑝𝑝 ¬𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝𝑝

𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹

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 Logical Equivalence
• Definition
• Two compound propositions 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are logically equivalent if
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 is a tautology.
• Two compound propositions 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are equivalent if and only
if the columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 ¬𝑝𝑝 ¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇

• Notation
• 𝑝𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞𝑞 or 𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑞𝑞

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 De Morgan’s Laws
• De Morgan’s laws
• ¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞
• ¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞

•
Augustus De Morgan
(1806-1871)
• Proof
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 ¬𝑝𝑝 ¬𝑞𝑞 (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ¬(𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇

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 Key Logical Equivalences
• Identity laws • Idempotent laws
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑇𝑇 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 • 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝐹𝐹 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 • 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝

• Domination laws • Negation laws

• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑇𝑇 ≡ 𝑇𝑇 • 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑇𝑇
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝐹𝐹 ≡ 𝐹𝐹 • 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝐹𝐹

• Double Negation law

• ¬ ¬𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝

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 Key Logical Equivalences
• Commutative laws
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝

• Associative laws
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟

• Distributive laws
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑟𝑟
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑟𝑟

• Absorption laws
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑝𝑝
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑝𝑝
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 More Logical Equivalences
• Those involving conditional or biconditional statements
X

PE= GPVE )1178 VP)

36
∆
 Constructing New Logical Equivalences
• We can show that two expressions are logically
equivalent by developing a series of logically equivalent
statements.
• To prove that 𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑞𝑞, we produce a series of equivalences
beginning with 𝑝𝑝 and ending with 𝑞𝑞:
𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝1 , (𝑝𝑝1 ≡ 𝑝𝑝2 ), … , (𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 ≡ 𝑞𝑞)

• Keep in mind that whenever a proposition (represented

by propositional variables) occurs in the equivalences
listed earlier, it may be replaced by an arbitrarily complex
compound proposition.

37
 Equivalence Proofs
• Show that ¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞.
• Solution:
¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞
De Morgan
¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞
Double negation
¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞
Distributive
¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ (¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝) ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞
Contradiction
¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝐹𝐹 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞
Identity
¬ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞

38
 Disjunctive Normal Form
• Definition soP
PNP
• A propositional formula is in disjunctive normal form (DNF)
if it consists of a disjunction of disjuncts where each disjunct
consists of a conjunction of atomic formulas or the negation
of an atomic formula.

• Shortly, a DNF is an OR of ANDs.

• Examples
a D C
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 is a DNF.
• 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 is not.
∞

• Every compound proposition can be put in DNF.

39
 Disjunctive Normal Form
• Converting 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 into a DNF pqp 00 0 11 10

Es O "
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 T →
1 1
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟)
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 (3) Disjunction
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 of them
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 (𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟)
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 (¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟) (4) Simplifying it
by logical
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 (¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟)
equivalences
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹

(1) Truth table (2) A disjunct for

each row where
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇

40
 Disjunctive Normal Form
• Find the DNF of 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 → ¬𝑟𝑟

• Solution: From the truth table, you will get

𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟
∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟
which can be reduced to
¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟
by logical equivalences.

• This proposition is true when 𝑟𝑟 is false or both 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞

are false.

41
 Conjunctive Normal Form
• Definition
• A compound proposition is in Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)
if it is a conjunction of disjunctions.
CGNF ≈
POY
• Shortly, a CNF is an AND of ORs.

• Every proposition can be put in an equivalent CNF.

• How to obtain CNF?

• By eliminating implications, moving negation inwards, and
using the distributive and associative laws
• By truth table as in the case of DNF

42
 Conjunctive Normal Form
• Put the following into CNF: ¬ 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟 → 𝑝𝑝
( Pi 7 q ) V ( TPVP )
• Solution
• Eliminating implications: ( P178) VD
¬ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑝𝑝
/ pVnrrp / ( quorup ) >
• Moving negation inwards and eliminating double negation:
𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ( PV 7 ) qVirvp )

• Converting to CNF using associative and distributive laws:

𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑝𝑝

43
 Conjunctive Normal Form
• Converting 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 into a CNF
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 (¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟) (3) Conjunction
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 (¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟) of them
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 (𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟)
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 (4) Simplifying it
by logical
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
equivalences
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟)

(1) Truth table (2) A conjunct for

each row where
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 = 𝐹𝐹

44
 DNF and CNF: Another Interpretation
• DNF as a disjunction of unit logic functions
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 𝑓𝑓1 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 → 𝔹𝔹 𝑠𝑠 ≡ 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑠𝑠, if 𝑝𝑝,𝑥𝑥 𝑞𝑞,
<𝑟𝑟0 = (𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇),
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑓𝑓1 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = � 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹, otherwise.
𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓6 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟) 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓5 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 → 𝔹𝔹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠, if 𝑝𝑝,𝑥𝑥𝑞𝑞,<𝑟𝑟0 = (𝐹𝐹, 𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇), 𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓5 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = �
𝐹𝐹, otherwise.
𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓6 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 Sunh 𝐹𝐹
8
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 ≡ � 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟
𝑖𝑖=1
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑓𝑓1 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝐹𝐹 ∨ 𝐹𝐹 ∨ 𝑓𝑓4 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝐹𝐹 ∨ 𝑓𝑓6 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑓𝑓7 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝐹𝐹
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ ¬𝑟𝑟
45
 DNF and CNF: Another Interpretation
• CNF as a conjunction of unit logic functions
𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 𝑟𝑟 𝑔𝑔1 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 → 𝔹𝔹 𝑠𝑠 ≡ 𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑠𝑠, if 𝑝𝑝,𝑥𝑥𝑞𝑞,<𝑟𝑟0 = (𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇),
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑔𝑔1 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = � 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇, otherwise.
𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑓𝑓6 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇
𝑔𝑔5 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 → 𝔹𝔹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹
𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠, if 𝑝𝑝,𝑥𝑥𝑞𝑞,<𝑟𝑟 0 = (𝐹𝐹, 𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇), 𝑇𝑇
𝑔𝑔5 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = �
𝑇𝑇, otherwise.
𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
𝑓𝑓6 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 = (𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟)
𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹
8
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 ≡ � 𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟
𝑖𝑖=1
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 ≡ 𝑇𝑇 ∧ 𝑔𝑔2 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑔𝑔3 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑇𝑇 ∧ 𝑔𝑔5 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑇𝑇 ∧ 𝑇𝑇 ∧ 𝑔𝑔8 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝⨁𝑞𝑞⨁𝑟𝑟 ≡ (¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟) ∧ (¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟) ∧ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟) ∧ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟)
46
 Propositional Satisfiability
• Definition
• A compound proposition is satisfiable if there is an assignment
of truth values to its variables that make it true. When no such
assignments exist, the compound proposition is unsatisfiable.
• A compound proposition is unsatisfiable if and only if
its negation is a tautology.

• Examples
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∧ (𝑟𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝)
Satisfiable: It is true when 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑇𝑇, 𝑞𝑞 = 𝑇𝑇, 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑇𝑇.
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟 ∧ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟
Satisfiable: It is true when 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑇𝑇, 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐹𝐹.
• 𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑟𝑟 ∨ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟 ∧ (¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞𝑞 ∨ ¬𝑟𝑟)
Unsatisfiable. Why?
but .

T 47
 Notation

⋁𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗=1 𝑝𝑝𝑗𝑗 is used for 𝑝𝑝1 ∨ 𝑝𝑝2 ∨ ⋯ ∨ 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛
⋀𝑗𝑗=1 𝑝𝑝𝑗𝑗 is used for 𝑝𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝𝑝2 ∧ ⋯ ∧ 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛

48
 Sudoku
• What is Sudoku?
• A Sudoku puzzle is represented by a 9 × 9 grid made up of nine
3 × 3 subgrids, known as blocks. Some of the 81 cells of the
puzzle are assigned one of the numbers 1, 2, … 9.
• The puzzle is solved by assigning numbers to each blank cell so
that every row, column and block contains each of the nine
possible numbers.

49
 Sudoku
• Encoding as a satisfiable problem
• Let 𝑝𝑝(𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛) denote the proposition that is true when the
number 𝑛𝑛 is in the cell in the 𝑖𝑖 th row and the 𝑗𝑗 th column.
• There are 9 × 9 × 9 = 729 such propositions.
• In the sample puzzle, 𝑝𝑝(5,1,6) is true, but 𝑝𝑝(5, 𝑗𝑗, 6) is false for
𝑗𝑗 = 2, 3, … , 9.

50
 Sudoku
• Encoding as a satisfiable problem (cont’d)
• For each cell with a given value, assert 𝑝𝑝(𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛), when the cell
in row 𝑖𝑖 and column 𝑗𝑗 has the given value.
• Assert that every row contains every number:
⋀9𝑖𝑖=1 ⋀9𝑛𝑛=1 ⋁9𝑗𝑗=1 𝑝𝑝(𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛)
• Assert that every column contains every number:
⋀9𝑗𝑗=1 ⋀9𝑛𝑛=1 ⋁9𝑖𝑖=1 𝑝𝑝(𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛)
• Assert that each of the 3 x 3 blocks contain every number:
⋀2𝑟𝑟=0 ⋀2𝑠𝑠=0 ⋀9𝑛𝑛=1 ⋁3𝑖𝑖=1 ⋁3𝑗𝑗=1 𝑝𝑝(3𝑟𝑟 + 𝑖𝑖, 3𝑠𝑠 + 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛)
• Assert that no cell contains more than one number. Take the
conjunction over all values of 𝑛𝑛, 𝑛𝑛′, 𝑖𝑖, and 𝑗𝑗, where each
variable ranges from 1 to 9 and 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 𝑛𝑛′ :
𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛 → ¬ 𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛′
51
 Sudoku
• How to solve the Sudoku satisfiable problem?
• We need to find an assignment of truth values to the 729
variables of the form 𝑝𝑝(𝑖𝑖, 𝑗𝑗, 𝑛𝑛) that makes the
conjunction of the assertions true.
• Those variables that are assigned 𝑇𝑇 yield a solution to the
puzzle.

52
 How Hard is Satisfiablity?
• Satisfiability can be checked using a truth table.
• Size of the truth table doubles with each variable.
• Therefore, the size of truth table is exponential in the
number of variables.
• In general, no better way is known to test satisfiability
efficiently.
• However, this is too complex even for modern computers
for large problems.
• There has been much work on developing efficient
methods for solving satisfiability problems.

53
54