UNIT-1

Audio Fundamentals and Devices: Basic Characteristics of sound signal, Microphone –

working principle, sensitivity, nature of response, Types of microphone, loud speaker- working
principle, Woofers and Tweeters, Characteristics. Types of loud speaker. Sound recording.

1.1 LOUDSPEAKERS
A loudspeaker is a transducer which converts electrical signals of audio frequency into sound
waves of the same frequency. It is also called as output transducer or reverse transducer.
A loud speaker's performance is determined by the following characteristics:
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS
Efficiency:
✔ It is defined as the ratio of output sound power to the input audio (electrical power).
✔ Its value depends on proper matching of the mechanical impedance with acoustical
impedance of the air volume being disturbed. (Some manufacturers quote the efficiency in
terms of sensitivity which is defined to be the input signal required to give a sound pressure
level of 0.1 Pa or 1 microbar at a distance of 1 metre from the loudspeaker.)
Noise:
✔ The unwanted sound, not contained in the input signal but present in the output of a
loudspeaker is called noise produced by the loudspeaker (the mechanical parts may vibrate
at some resonant frequency, causing noise).
✔ Signal-to-noise ratio or SNR of the system which is de- fined as ratio of signal output to
the ‘output of noise in the absence of signal’. Frequency Response: It indicates the
loudspeaker's response for the audible frequency range of sound. Ideally, the response of a
loudspeaker should be flat within ± 1 dB for the frequency range of 16 Hz to 20 kHz.
✔ The mass of the diaphragm assembly have high frequencies which are attenuated; and due
to series compliance, low frequencies are attenuated. Moreover, the movable system may
have some natural resonant frequency within the audible range and the output at that
frequency will be emphasized.
Distortion:
✔ Any change in frequency, phase and amplitude complexion of the output sound as
compared to the input audio signal is called distortion.
 ✔ Frequency and phase distortions may result due to mass and compliance effect. Amplitude
or non-linear distortion will result due to non-uniformity in the magnetic field in which the
coil moves.
Directivity:
✔ It is the ratio of actual sound intensity at a point (in the direction of maximum intensity) to
the sound intensity that would have been available there, had the loudspeaker been
unidirectional.
Power :
✔ It is the maximum audio power (indicated in watts) for which it is designed. Power more
than the maximum will damage the speaker.
Impedance :
✔ The input impedance of the loudspeaker is represented in ohms and is an important
parameter, as its matching with the impedance of source amplifier is necessary for the
optimum efficiency.
1.3 CRYSTAL LOUDSPEAKER

Fig 1.1 Crystal type speakers

✔ Rochelle-salt crystals have the property of becoming physically distorted when a voltage
is applied across two of their surfaces.
✔ This property is the basics of the crystal type of speaker driver.
✔ The crystal is clamped between two electrodes across which the audio frequency output
voltage is applied.
✔ The crystal is also mechanically connected to a diaphragm. The deformations of the crystal
caused by the audio frequency signal across the electrodes cause the diaphragm to vibrate
and thus to produce sound output.
 ✔ Crystal speakers have been impractical for reproduction of the full audio-frequency range
because the input impedance is almost completely capacitive. Thus it is difficult to couple
Power into them.
✔ At high audio frequencies, the reactance becomes lower and the relative amount of power
smaller.
✔ In the base range, stresses on the crystals are very great, and the crystals have been known
to crack under stresses.
1.4 DYNAMIC LOUDSPEAKER
✔ To provide very strong magnetic field for high watt speakers, an electromagnet is used
instead of a permanent magnet. . Its construction is shown in Fig. 1.2.
✔ Loudspeakers of more than 25 watts and up to a few hundred watts are of the
electrodynamics type.
✔ The strong and steady magnetic field is produced by a large field coil wrapped around a
core.
✔ The shape of the magnet is pot type with the south pole in the centre and the north pole
in the periphery.
✔ The special shape of the core allows magnetic flux to remain concentrated in the annular
gap between pole pieces.
✔ The voice coil is wound on fiber or aluminum (to keep it light in weight). It is placed in the
annular gap.
✔ The audio signal from the amplifier's output transformer is applied to the voice coil. This
signal causes a varying magnetic field.
✔ The resultant interaction between the magnetic fields (one due to electromagnet and the
other due to audio current in the voice coil) produces mechanical vibrations (motor action)
in the coil assembly, which correspond to the audio signals.
✔ The vibrations of the coil are transmitted to the attached cone which create sound waves in
the air in the listeners' area, and hence radiate sound energy directly.
 Fig. 1.2 Dynamic Loudspeaker
Advantages
✔ Higher power can be obtained
✔ Frequency response is better (40 Hz to 5000 Hz)
Disadvantages
✔ Power supply needed for field coil
✔ Heavier weight for the same amount of magnetic field
1.5 ELECTROSTATIC {CONDENSER/CAPACITOR) LOUDSPEAKERS
✔ This type of speaker operates on the principle that a dc voltage between two parallel metal
plates causes these plates to attract or repel each other.
✔ The amount of attraction or repulsion depends on the applied voltage l f one of the plates
is a flexible metal, it will bend.
✔ But the amount of attraction and repulsion is not directly proportional to the voltage
applied.
✔ For example, considering the movable and fixed plates of Fig1.3 with no voltage applied.
Now suppose we apply a slowly varying ac voltage to both plates.
✔ As the voltage increases from zero the potential difference between the two plates also
increases.
✔ This in turn produces an increasing force of attraction between the plates, so that the
movable plate tends towards the fixed plate.
✔ As the ac voltage decreases once more to zero, the attractive force decreases, and the
movable plate moves back to its original position.
✔ But, the second half of the ac cycle, in the negative direction. All that this means to the
metal plate is that the positive and negative voltages have switched plates.
✔ The attractive farce is still there, and it is still the same. So, we get another bend in the
movable plate on the negative half of the ac cycle.
✔ Thus, for one full cycle of ac we have two bends in the movable plate, in effect a. frequency
doubling_ A 2 kHz signal would giant: us a 4 kHz note.

Fig. 1.3 Frequency doubling of an unpolarized loudspeaker

✔ To overcome, frequency doubling, we polarize the speaker, that we apply a high voltage
(1,000 volts or so) as a son of de bias, (Fig. 1.4).
✔ The voltage exerts a stead' attraction between the two plates, so that now-with no signal
the movable plate is bent slightly toward the fixed plate.
✔ If 400 V audio signal is applied to the speaker then the positive half cycle of the signal
increases from zero the voltage between the plates rises from 1,000 V toward 1,400 V and
the movable plate bends from its original position toward the fixed plate.
✔ As the ac passes its peak and returns to zero, the voltage between the plates drop, from
1,000 V to 600 V. Instead of moving again toward the fixed plate, the movable plate moves
farther away.
✔ The bending of the movable plate identical to the ac swing and there is no frequency
doubling.
 Fig. 1.4 Frequency doubling eliminated by DC Polarization
✔ A detailed view of a modern electrostatic speaker is shown in Fig. 1.5.
✔ The practical speaker of today uses push-pull, with a built-in step-up transformer to work
from the ordinary 8 ohm amplifier output tap.
✔ The polarizing voltage is applied to the centre or movable plate through a resistor that keeps
the voltage stable during variations in the signal voltage.
✔ The signal voltage is applied to the m o outside plates. Because the diaphragm is centered
between the two plates that attract it equally, there is no bending when there is no signal.
✔ Also, because of the push-pull action the diaphragm can move twice as for in response to
signal voltages for the same amount of compression of the dielectric material.
✔ The major weakness of electrostatic speaker requires the DC bias is that 1i to be much
larger than the applied audio signal. In practical speakers, 1,000 to 1,200 volts may be used.
✔ Further, when the bass frequency ranges, a great deal or power would he required to get
enough output.
✔ To produce such power, the speaker area would have to be very large. So, even though full
range electrostatic speakers have been constructed.
✔ In practical use electrostatic speakers have been mostly confined to frequencies above
1,000 Hz.
 Fig. 1.5 Electrostatic Loudspeaker
✔ The step-up transformer and the high voltage polarizing supply is usually built right into
the modem electrostatic.
✔ Often the electrostatic unit and its matching woofer are sold together as a complete system.
✔ Some high class systems use electrostatics to reproduce the high frequencies. Koss uses
electrostatics on some of their stereo headphones.
1.6 PERMENANT MAGNET LOUDSPEAKER
1.6.1 Principle:
✔ The moving-coil loudspeaker works on the principle of interaction between a magnetic
field and current in the same way as an ac motor works.
✔ A coil, called voice coil, is placed in a uniform magnetic field.
✔ When the audio current passes through the voice coil, there is an interaction between the
magnetic field and the current, resulting in a force working on the movable coil.
✔ This force is proportional to the audio current, and hence causes vibrator motion (moor like
action) in the coil, which makes a conical paper diaphragm to vibrate and produce pressure
variations in air, resulting in sound waves.
✔ The required stiffness to restrain the motion. The spiders also keep the coil centered, so
that the cone moves forward and backward only.
✔ Leads from the voice coil are cemented to the cone surface. From there, It is brought to the
terminals mounted on the metal frame or basket.
 ✔ The force on the coil due to interaction between the current through coil and the magnetic
field is given as equation 1 and 2

Fig. 1.6 Permanent Magnet Loudspeaker

1.6.2 Functioning:
✔ When an audio current flow through the voice coil placed in a magnetic field, a force equal
to Newton’s act on the coil and moves it to and fro.
✔ The paper cone attached to the coil also moves and causes compression and rarefaction
cycles in the air.
✔ Thus, audio current is converted into sound waves. The equivalent circuit of the cone
speaker is shown in Fig. 1.7.
✔ There are two transformations. One is electromechanical and the other is
mechanoacoustical.
 ✔ The electromechanical transfer, represented by transformer Tm, transfers force (produced
by the source current in inductance L of the voice coil and the associated resistance R to
the movable mechanical parts (voice coil, diaphragm, springs and core).
✔ Mass, compliance and friction of the moving parts are represented by Lm, Cm and Rm
which are analogous to inductance, capacitance and resistance, respectively.
✔ At low audio frequencies, Lm is negligible and the output depends on the compliance, Cm.
At high audio frequencies, Cm is negligible and the output depends on Lm. So the high
frequency speakers (tweeters) are of low mass, and the low-frequency speakers (woofers)
arc of high compliance (large size).
✔ Typical frequency response of a 20-cm sized cone-type loudspeaker is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.7 Equivalent circuit for cone type speaker

Fig. 1.8 Frequency response of 20 cm sized cone-type loudspeaker

1.6.3 Direct Radiating Type:
✔ The whole paper in a cone-type loudspeaker acts as a diaphragm and causes pressure
variations direct in the listeners' area. Hence it is called `direct radiating type loudspeaker'.
1.6.4 Characteristics of the Cone-type Speaker:
✔ Efficiency is quite low, about 5 percent only.
✔ The poor efficiency is due to the fact that it acts as a direct radiator, and so there is complete
mismatch between the low acoustic load presented by the large volume of air and the high
mechanical load presented by the voice coil and cone assembly, Signal to noise Ratio .
✔ It is 30 dB or better. Frequency Response It is restricted to mid-frequencies only.
 ✔ Frequency response drops at low and high audio frequencies for a typical loudspeaker.
However a massive loudspeaker (called woofer) for low frequencies and small size speaker
(called tweeter) for high frequencies can be designed.
✔ 3 dB frequency response of a typical speaker is from 60 Hz to 2000 Hz. Low-frequency
woofer speakers with baffles will give frequency response up to 30 Hz, High-frequency
tweeters extend the higher frequency response to 10 kHz or even higher.
✔ Distortion Non-linearity due to non-uniformity in the magnetic flux density causes severe
non linear or amplitude distortion (up to about 10%).
✔ Directivity basically, the loudspeaker is Omni-directional. But baffles and enclosures
modify the directivity so that most of the power is in the front.
✔ High audio frequencies are concentrated in a narrow cone about the axis of the radiator.
✔ Impedance The effective impedance taking into account the mechanical and acoustical
loads varies from 2Ω to 32Ω.
✔ The common impedances in commercial speakers are 4, 8 or 16Ω (200 to 300Ω impedances
are obtained in an electrodynamics type cone speaker).
✔ Power handling Capacity Power range of speakers lies between a few mill watts (for 2 cm
speaker) to about 25 watt for large size speakers. (Electrodynamics speakers can withstand
a few hundred watts of input power)
1.6.5 Advantages:
✔ Small size
✔ Low cost
Satisfactory frequency response
1.6.6 Disadvantages:
✔ Poor efficiency
✔ Very low and high frequencies are attenuated
1.6.7 Applications:
✔ Radio receivers
✔ TV receivers
1.7 WOOFERS
✔ There are two types of low-frequency speaker, the commonly known woofer, and the more
recent addition the sub roofer.
✔ The latter is used for the reproduction of frequencies below those produced by the woofer,
and it is generally purchased as an odd on to an existing system,
✔ The low-frequency speaker provides the bass of any hi-fi system. Its sole purpose is to
reproduce the low-frequency notes of the program source.
✔ The prime requisite for low-frequency reproduction is a large diaphragm, the larger the
better.
✔ The smallest diaphragm for any halfway decent woofer is 8 inches; for a subwoofer it is 12
inches.
✔ In addition to large size, the diaphragm must be of fairly heavy construction. Light
diaphragms just can’t hold up under the vibrations encountered under the lower audio
ranges.
✔ A woofer must be able to vibrate back and forth very easily. (i.e.) have high compliance.
One way to accomplish this is to have the diaphragm loosely connected to the frame.
✔ The gasketing that holds the periphery of diaphragm to the frame/basket is fastened so that
it barely keeps the diaphragm from slipping loose, but no more shown in Fig. 1.9. With
this construction it takes less force to move the diaphragm any circular distances.
✔ Rather than the loose suspension system, the cone is supported by a very flexible material
so that it can be moved very easily by the voice coil.
✔ The suspension is tight but the sine wave at the diaphragm edge is made very flexible.
✔ A woofer must also have a large voice coil to handle considerable heat.
✔ The larger the voice coil, the more the current produced by the amplifier output circuit and,
therefore, the more the power the woofer can handle.

Fig. 1.9 Woofer

✔ Finally, a strong magnet can be of great help to move the heavy voice coil and cone
assembly too well. The better the woofer, the heavier the magnet assembly.
✔ To sum up, a good woofer must have a large, heavy diaphragm, a strong magnet, high
compliance and a large voice coil.
1.8 TWEETERS
✔ There are two main types of high frequency speakers; the well-known sweeter and the more
recent supertweeter. Supertweeters can be add-ons or they can be integral with the system.
✔ Six basic high-frequency speakers (tweeter) exists
✔ The cone is a physically disincentive version of the woofer.
✔ The dome, so called because of its dome-shaped diaphragm.
✔ The horn, so named because it is a horn.

✔ The Heil air-motion transformer which uses the principle of lever in its operation, named
aid r its inventor, Dr. Oskar Heil.
✔ High polymer molecular film tweeter, uses the piezoelectric effect for its principle of
operation (used exclusively by Pioneer)-
✔ The electrostatic tweeter works on the principle of attraction or repulsion between two
metal plates.
1.8.1 CONE TYPE TWEETERS
✔ Since tweeters must reproduce high-frequency notes, they roust resonate at high
frequencies.
✔ High resonant frequencies are obtained with light weight, stiffly supported mechanisms.
✔ To make the diaphragm of a con type tweeter light, it must be small.
✔ When the size and weight is reduced the diaphragm in turn, reduce the size of the ice coil
also.
✔ Luckily, high frequencies card only a comparatively small amount of electric power;
therefore, the small voice coil is not subjected to electrical overload.
✔ Without exception, it is wound with light weight wire such as aluminum wire or ribbon.
✔ The lightness of the moving system provided by aluminum makes the high frequency
response much better than if copper were used.
✔ Cone type radiators tend to concentrate radiation of the high frequency components of a
sound in a narrow cone about the axis of the radiator.
✔ The degree of directivity of speaker is indicated by a directivity pattern in Fig.1.9. The axis
of the radiator is considered the reference line with an angle of zero degrees, Directivity
pattern are normally shown as a top view in the horizontal plane through the radiator axis.
✔ A cone in free space should have the same pattern in a vertical plane,
✔ The line OA in Fig. 1.10 indicates by its length that the sound radiated along it is a
maximum to comparison to that in any other direction.
✔ At an angle 450, the line OB is a measure of the relative sound intensity in that direction-
Since OR is only half as long as a listener along OB would listen only about half the volume
compared to what a person along OA. At angles near 900, the pattern indicates minimum
(zero) radiation.
✔ In any practical setup, such a zero area would not exist cause sound waves reach there by
reflection.

Fig. 1.10 Radiation pattern for a typical cone at one frequency

✔ Because, directivity normally varies considerably with frequency, a complete diagram
(Fig. 1.11) must show separate patterns for each of at least several frequencies.
✔ Fig.1.11 depicts variation of directivity with frequency for a 12-inch cone, assuming that
the speaker is mounted in an infinite baffle. The radiation pattern will be narrow at highs
than at lows.
 Fig. 1.11 Variation of directivity with frequency for a typical cone radiator
✔ A single cone-type tweeter distributes high-Frequency sounds unevenly. It lobes the higher
frequencies directly out in front and tends to cause a drop of at the sides.
✔ This effect can be overcome by arranging two or more cone tweeters as shown in Fig.1.11.
In this way, overlapping individual lobes from separate speakers cover the listening area.

Fig. 1.12 Sound distribution of two tweeter array. Highs can be spread out by angling the
speakers
1.8.2 DOME TYPE TWEETERS
✔ Uniformly dispersed flat energy response begins with a speaker system's ability to rd i ate
sound at ail frequencies evenly in all directions.
✔ Even dispersion of sound energy means that the sound emanating from the program source
will be heard same by listeners in all parts of the room.
✔ For low frequency sounds this problem of dispersion is not of practical consequence, since
they are very nearly unidirectional.
✔ The limiting factor for high-frequency sounds is that a speaker will begin to directional
when its circumference equals the wavelength of the frequency being reproduced.
✔ Directionality increases the wavelength decreases with respect to the speaker’s dimensions,
✔ The laws of physics dictate the most direct approach to the problem of even dispersion of
high-frequency energy; the rivers used must he as small as possible.
✔ Dome tweeters, Fig.1.13 are designed according to this principle in order to use these
physical laws to the listener's advantage.
 Fig. 1.13 Dome type tweeter
1.8.3 HORN TYPE TWEETER
✔ To obtain reasonable output from a loudspeaker, we must vibrate large amounts of air.
✔ For this, usually a fairly large vibrating surfaces, such as the cones in woofers.
✔ The larger the cone surface, the greater the output.But the tweeter's cone (diaphragm) must
be small to attain its high-frequency response.
✔ Thus only a small amount of air can be moved, reducing the output power.
✔ The increase in acoustic output from any type of diaphragm , couples directly to a horn,
converting the system to a horn loaded one. Fig. 1.13 shows the relative difference in size
between the diaphragms of a cone-type tweeter and a horn-loaded one.
✔ The driving force of the voice coil of the latter is distributed between the small mass of the
diaphragm and the mass of air in the horn.
✔ Since air weights much less than paper or metal the overall load on the voice coil for the
same acoustic output as that of the cone type tweeter, can be greatly reduced, Also, for the
same electrical input, the output of the horn loaded system is greater.
✔ A horn is a tube so flared (tapered) that the diameter incases from a small value at one end
called the throat to a large value at the other end called the mouth.
✔ Horns, Fig. 1.14 have been used for centuries for increasing the radiation of the human
voice and musical instruments.
✔ The horn does acoustically what the cone does mechanically. It couples the small voice
coil area to a large area or air.
✔ In this way, the horn acts as an acoustic transformer and converts the relatively high
impedance at the throat and driver.
 Fig. 1.14 Horn Type tweeters
✔ The horn is a fixed physical boundary for its enclosed column of air and does not vibrate
itself.
✔ Acoustic energy fed to its throat must therefore be obtained from a vibrating diaphragm
which converts mechanical motion from the driver voice coil to acoustic energy.
✔ Although the cone type radiator acts as both diaphragm and radiator and transducer, from
mechanical to acoustic energy, the horn acts only as a radiator, with both input and output
energy being acoustic.
MICROPHONES
✔ Microphone is a transducer which converts sound pressure variations into electrical signals
of the same frequency and phase and of amplitudes in the same proportion as in pressure
variations.
✔ The electrical signals in the audible range are called audio signals.(Microphone , in short,
is sometimes written as mic or mike).
✔ A microphone is the first link in sound recording and systems. Audio signals can be used
to cross the barrier of time (by recording) and the barrier of distance (by radio transmission)
1.9 CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROPHONE
The quality of a microphone is determined by the following characteristics:
✔ Sensitivity
✔ Signal--to-noise ratio
✔ Frequency response
✔ Distortion
 ✔ Directivity
✔ Output impedance
These characteristics are defined as under:
Sensitivity:
✔ It is defined as output in mill volts (or in dB below 1 volt) for the sound pressure of 1 Pa
(or ID microbars at 1000 Hz.
✔ As the norm al level of speech provides a sound pressure of l microbar (or 0.1 Pa), the
sensitivity based on this criteria for 1 microbar pressure (or 0.1 Pa) level would be one-
tenth the value for 1 Pa pressure. (Some Manufacturers quote the sensitivity in terms of
dBm, i.e., power output in dB below 1 mill watt.)
Signal-to-noise Ratio:
✔ Some noise (called self-noise or thermal noise) is generated inside the microphone due to
resistance of the circuit, built-in transformer, etc.
✔ It is represented in terms of the sound pressure level (SPL.) that would give the same output
as the noise output.
✔ The output is measured by passing it through a weighting filter which accounts for the
reduced sensitivity of the ear at high and low audio frequencies. The acoustically weighted
output is represented i
✔ Distortion Besides frequency distortion (uneven frequency response) described above,
there are two types of distortions in microphones, namely, non-linear distortion, and phase
distortion.
Non-linear Distortion:
✔ This distorts the amplitude of the audio signal, which retilts iii production of such
harmonics in the output that are not present in the input sound.
✔ For quality microphones. such distortion should be less the 5%. For high-fidelity sound
systems, distortion should not be more than 1%.
Phase Distortion:
✔ This may cause change of phase relationship between different components of a complex
sound wave.
✔ Phase distortion occurs when multiple microphones are used causing relative path
difference from the source of sound.

Directivity:
 ✔ The directivity of a microphone is defined with the help of a polar diagram.
✔ The angle for half-power points in a polar diagram represents directivity of a microphone,
as shown in Fig. 1.15.
✔ Maximum power is in the axial direction of the microphone t wards source of sound. When
the microphone's axis deflects away from the source of sound, power output is reduced.

1.10 CRYSTAL MICROPHONE

Fig 1.16 Crystal Microphone

✔ Certain crystals such as Rochelle salt and quartz possess the property of generating small
emf when subject to stress or strain.
✔ This effect is utilized in what is known as the crystal microphone.
✔ A thin finger shaped slice of crystal is secured at one end by means of a compliant clamp,
and the apex of a cone is made to bear against the other. Sound pressure waves cause the
cone to alternately, press against and bend the crystal slice and release it.
✔ Thus the corresponding voltages are generated across the slice. A pair of contacts is fixed
to opposite surfaces to take off the signal.
✔ An improvement is obtained if the single slice of crystal is replaced by two slices cemented
together.
✔ Then, when the pressure is exerted, one slice is compressed and other is stretched.
✔ Thus equal and opposite voltages are produced which, being in series like the cells of a car
battery, give double the output.
 ✔ Any nonlinearity which may arise due to different mechanical strains between pressure and
release is also thereby compensated. The double crystal unit is termed as bimorph.
✔ With some of the better microphones the cone does not actuate the crystal directly but
through cantilever.
✔ Another type of construction is the sound cell where several crystal elements are sealed
together, this also termed as multimorph.
✔ The crystal microphone is the type most widely used in lower cost installations.
✔ The crystal microphone is normally non-directional although a pressure-gradient crystal
microphone which gives unidirectional response pattern is also being marketed.

1.11 CARBON MICROPHONE

1.11.1 Principle
✔ When fine carbon granules enclosed in a ease are subjected to variations of pressure, the
resistance of the granules changes, When such a device of carbon granules is connected in
wiles with a load through a do supply.
✔ The current through the load will vary in accordance with pressure variations on the carbon
granules.

Fig.1.17 Carbon microphone

1.11.2 Construction
✔ The construction of a carbon microphone is shown in Fig.1.20. Fine carbon granules are
enclosed between two metal plates.
✔ The upper plate called diaphragm, is attached to a movable metal plate through a metal
piston or plunger.
 ✔ The lower metal plate is fixed and is insulated from the diaphragm. A protective cover with
holes is used to prefect the unit.
✔ A battery is connected between two m Metal plates. When the load is connected, current
flows through the carbon granules and the load.
✔ Path of the current passes from the +ve battery terminal through the fixed lower plate, the
resistance of carbon granules, movable metal plate, metal casing, rind output transformer,
as shown in Fig.
✔ The purpose of the output transformer is to eliminate content of the microphone.
1.11.3 Functioning:
✔ When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves to and fro.
✔ During compression condition, it presses the carbon granules and during rarefaction, it
loosens them, when carbon granules are pressed, the resistance decreases and hence the
current through the circuit increases.
✔ When carbon granules loosen, the resistance increases, decreasing the current through the
circuit. In the absence of sound, a steady current flows. Thus, sound waves superimpose a
varying current, or audio current on the steady dc current.
✔ The net resistance of the carbon granules is given by Eq. 1.4.
-----1.4
where,
r - Net resistance in ohms. -
R0 - Steady resistance in ohms for no sound
δr - Variation of resistance due to sound pressure (it will have positive as well as negative value)
The development of a voltage V across a load resistance RL is illustrated in Fig. 1.21.

Fig.1.18 Equivalent circuit of carbon microphone

If E is the battery voltage, RL – load resistance, R0+RL= constant for constant load say R, and
steady current I0 is the sound pressure variations .When sound-pressure variations cause a change
in resistance R and δr/ - them the instantaneous current, I is given by Eq. 1.5.
 ✔ Equation (1.6), shows that the change in current, and hence the change in voltage across
the load is proportional to the change in resistance r) of the carbon granules, and hence
proportional to the pressure variations due to sound.
✔ When pressure increases, δr decreases and so I increases and the output voltage across the
load increases,
1.11.4 Characteristics of a Carbon Microphone
✔ The Sensitivity will be Very high.
✔ The output of a carbon microphone is about 20 dB below 1V i.e., about 100 mV).
✔ Signal-to-noise Ratio Poor random variation of resistance of carbon granules generates a
continuous hiss.
✔ Frequency Response Carbon microphones have a frequency response of 200 to 5000 Hz,
and therefore are unsuitable for high fidelity work.
✔ The resonance peak is at 2000 Hz and overall frequency bandwidth is usually tip to 5 kHz.
✔ Distortion is high. The content is rich in harmonics unless variation in resistance (δr) is a
very small percentage of steady resistance R. Distort ion is of the order of 10%. Also,
carbon granules have a tendency to stick to each other which further increases the
distortion.
✔ Directivity of carbon microphone is substantially unidirectional. However, high frequency
response over 300 Hz falls beyond an angle of 400 from the front of the microphone.
Output Impedance It is about 100Ω
1.11.5 Other Features
✔ It is mechanically very rigid
 ✔ It is prone to moisture and heat
✔ It is small in dimensions
✔ Cost of the microphone is the lowest of all other microphones
1.11.6 Advantages
✔ Very rugged
✔ Small size
✔ Very cheap
✔ Good sensitivity
1.11.7 Disadvantages
✔ High distortion
✔ Limited frequency response
✔ Not suitable for high fidelity work
1.11.8 Applications
✔ Due to limited frequency range, it is useful only in telephones. It is also sometimes used in
portable radio communication sets.
1.12 DYNAMIC (MOVING-COIL) MICROPHONE
1.12.1 Basics:
✔ The moving-coil microphone (also called dynamic microphone) uses the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
✔ When sound pressure variations move a coil placed in a magnetic field, there is a change
of magnetic flux passing through the coil.
✔ An emf is, therefore, induced in the coil and this emf forms output of the microphone,
(Due to similarity in construction, a moving coil loudspeaker can also work as a moving-
coil microphone. The same unit is often used both as microphone and loudspeaker in
office intercom systems.)
1.12.2 Construction:
✔ The main components of a moving-coil microphone are a magnet, diaphragm and coil.
✔ These are shown in Fig. 1.19. The magnet is a permanent magnet of pot type with a central
pole piece (South Pole) and the peripheral pole piece (north pole).
✔ This type of magnet gives a uniform magnetic field in the gap between the pole pieces.
✔ The diaphragm is a thin circular sheet of non-magnetic material and is of' light weight.
 ✔ It is slightly domed for extra rigidity. It is fixed to the body of the magnet with the help of
springs.
✔ The springs provide compliance (equivalent to electrical capacitance) to the motion of a
diaphragm. The mass of the diaphragm and coil assembly provide inductive effect.
✔ A protective cover (a metal grill) is used to save the delicate diaphragm and coil assembly
from being mishandled.
✔ A silk cloth partition is used to separate the upper chamber from the lower chamber. A
small tube is used in the lower chamber to give access to the free atmosphere.

Fig.1.19 Dynamic Microphone

Fig.1.20 Equivalent circuit for Dynamic microphone

✔ The mass of the diaphragm restricts the high audio frequency output, and the stiffness
(capacitive reactance) caused by the springs' compliance, restricts the low audio frequency
output.
✔ The electrical equivalent circuit for a morning coil microphone is shown in Fig.1.20
1.12.3 Principle of Working:
 ✔ When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves and hence, the coil moves in and out in
the magnetic field.
✔ This motion changes the flux through the coil, which results in an emf being induced in the
coil due to electromagnetic induction.
✔ The value of this emf depends on the rate of change of flux and hence on the motion of the
coil. The displacement of the coil depends on the pressure of sound waves on the
diaphragm. Thus, it is a pressure microphone,
✔ The induced voltage, e, across the coil of the microphone is given by Eq. 1.7.
✔ If B is the flux, density in tesla (or Weber/m2) 1, the length of the coil in meters, v, the
velocity of the diaphragm (and hence coil) in m/s then.

✔ Thus, the induced ernf is directly proportional to velocity which, in turn, is proportional to
frequency of sound pressure variations.
1.12.4 Advantages
✔ Good frequency response
✔ Bidirectional behavior
✔ Good transient response
✔ It does not need any external bias for its working
1.12.5 Disadvantages
✔ It is a delicate and expensive microphone
✔ It can be easily damaged due to slight mishandling
✔ Its sensitivity is low
1.12.6 Applications
✔ Dramas
✔ Music
✔ Radio broadcast
✔ Public address system
1.13 WIRELESS MICROPHONE
✔ The ultimate in mobility is afforded by the wireless (radio microphone) because with this
there is no connecting cable and the user is free to move around over distance of several
hundred meters.
✔ There are two basic types, one where the radio transmitter is contained within the casing
of the actual microphone, and the other which takes the form of a slim pocket unit about
the size of a wallet into which an ordinary microphone can be plugged.
✔ The integral microphone/transmitter unit, Fig. 1.21 is rather larger than a normal gun
microphone as batteries must be accommodated as well as the transducer and transmitter.
✔ In order to obtain sufficient power for the transmitter, the batteries are at least 9V, but the
size limits the capacity.
✔ The average life is three to five hours, but rechargeable batteries are often fitted to make
the instrument more economic to run.
✔ With the separate pocket transmitter a lavalier or tie-clip microphone can be used to give
complete freedom to the user.
✔ The aerial takes the rum] of a short flexible lead which trails from the microphone. Usual
length is a quainter wavelength at the permitted frequencies of the carrier wave.
✔ There are fifteen frequencies allocated for wireless microphones and all units work on any
one of these interference is no problem because or the short range, it being unlikely that
another user will be operating on the same frequency within about half a kilometer.
✔ The frequencies are in four groups: firstly group with a wide bandwidth, 174.1, 174.5,
174.8 and 175.0 MHz.
✔ The second group is of narrow bandwidth, the frequencies being 174.6. 174.675. 174.77,
174.885, and 175.020 MHz.
✔ The third group is also or narrows bandwidth, being reserved for teaching deaf children in
schools: these are 173.4, 173.465, 173.545 and 173.64 MHz.
✔ In addition, in certain circumstances, the frequencies of 174.6 and 174.95 MHz are
allocated for communication on work sites. Ali ordinary E-M receiver will not pick up
wireless microphone transmissions.
 Fig. 1.21 (a) VHF Wireless Microphone
✔ The narrow bandwidth specification is for a deviation of +20 kHz and is suitable for most
speech applications.
✔ The wide bandwidth allocations Aim- a deviation of +75 kHz and give the better quality
reproduction required by stage and cabaret artists.
✔ The transmitter output power must not exceed 50 mW in the case of narrow band
transmitters and 10 mW with the wide band units.
✔ Certain specifications also apply to the receiver. Signal to noise ratio must be better than
30 dB and selectivity such that a signal with a deviation of + 10 kHz, 70 kHz away from
the wanted signal in the case of narrow bard receiver, and with a deviation of +2.5 kHz, at
200 kHz away, from the wanted signal in the case of wide band receiver will not produce
an increase of noise plus unwanted signal of more than 3 dB in the output.
✔ An interfering signal of 3mV should not give a signal in the output greater than 10 dB
above noise level in the case of wideband receiver and 20 dB above with that of the narrow
hand grit.
✔ It is possible for any receiver to generate and radiate a signal from the local oscillator which
is part of the super heterodyne circuit universally used. The specification stipulates that
cm) such signal radiated from the receiver’s aerial should not exceed 2,5 μW at any
frequency.
1.14 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND SIGNAL
✔ Sound does not propagate in vacuum as there is no material in the vacuum.
The to and fro or back and forth motion of an object is called vibration. Some instruments
produce sound due to the vibration of membranes, some due to the vibration of strings, and
some others produce sound due to the vibration of an air column.
✔ Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its mean or equilibrium position
is called its amplitude.
✔ Time-period
The time taken by the vibrating particle for one full vibration or oscillation is called the
time period of vibration.
✔ Frequency
The number of vibrations per second is called the frequency. Frequency is measured hertz
(Hz).
✔ Characteristics of Sound
✔ Loudness
The loudness of sound depends on its amplitude. The loudness of sound is proportional to
the square of the amplitude. A roar of a lion is louder than a woman’s voice. The loudness
of sound is measured in Decibel (db). If loudness exceeds 80 db, then the sound becomes
physically painful.
✔ Pitch
The pitch of the sound depends on its frequency. If frequency is more, then the pitch or
shrillness is more. The pitch of a woman’s voice is more and it is shriller then a man’s
voice.
✔ Audible sound
Not all sound produced by vibrating bodies is audible. The human ear can recognise the
sounds of frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. This range of frequency of sound
 is called audible sound. Some animals like dogs and snakes can hear sounds of frequencies
greater than 20,000 Hz.
✔ Infrasonic sounds
Sounds of frequencies less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic sounds.
✔ Ultrasonic sounds
The sounds of frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz are called ultrasonic sounds.
1.15 SOUND RECORDING
Elements of sound recording
● Capture
● Edit / Alter
● Playback
● Mass distribution - not just distribution on a small scale but on a large scale

✔ Sound recording and reproduction is the storage of sound and playing it back so that a
person can hear the same sound more than once.
✔ The two main classes of sound recording technology are
● Analog Recording
● Digital Recording
✔ Mechanical Storage
✔ The phonograph – cylinder recorder/player developed by Thomas Edison.
✔ Modern phonographs use electromagnetic transducers called cartridges
✔ Cartridges convert physical energy which is stored in the grooves of the recording into
electrical energy
✔ The stylus follows the undulating groove
✔ Movements of the stylus, vibrate a small magnet/coil mechanism
✔ Magnetic Tape Recording
✔ Magnetic recording heads are transducers that convert electrical energy into magnetic
✔ Audio current creates an alternating magnetic field
✔ The magnetic field is focused at the “gap” in the record head
✔ Playback heads are constructed in a nearly identical manner
✔ During playback, a current is induced to flow in the coil of the head by the magnetic
charges of the tape surface
✔ Analog Tape Recording
✔ The paths on the tape where audio is recorded are called “tracks”
✔ The inputs on the recorder are called “channels”
✔ Tape width and track spacing affect cross talk between tracks
✔ Tape speed affects fidelity
✔ Higher tape speeds produce greater signal-to noise ratios
✔ Higher tape speeds produce wider frequency responses
✔ Optical Storage
✔ Electrical energy is converted into light energy by a LASER
✔ The LASER burns microscopic pits into the surface of a glass disk
✔ Binary data (on/off) triggers the LASER
✔ Compact disks are read by a LASER
✔ Light is refracted into a photoreceptor by “bumps” on the surface of the disk
✔ Each pulse of light is equal to an “on” state
✔ Digital Tape Recording
✔ Digital audio tape stores binary data (on/off) represented by short bursts of electrical
Current
✔ Stationary head systems (DASH) use reel-to reel tape transports
✔ Digital audio began in the telephone industry, where it was used to digitize telephone
conversations and, in effect, compress them so that more conversations could be handled
on existing lines.