BIODIVERSITY

- variability among living organisms from the land, the seas, and other aquatic ecosystems,
and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems

= 3 LEVELS =

1. Genetic diversity – the sum total of information contained in the genes of species of plants,
animals, and microorganisms.
 also includes genetic variation between distinct populations of the same species or variation
within a population.
 plays a very important role in the survival and adaptability of a species to changing
environmental conditions

2. Species diversity – the variety of species, including their abundance, distribution and
functions or interactions within a given spatial context, which can be a geographical
region/location/ecosystem.
 2 main factors:
o Richness is a measure of the number of different kinds of organisms present in a
particular area regardless of scale, such as the number of organisms living in a
spoonful of soil, or on a large scale as the whole earth
o Evenness compares the similarity of the population size of each of the species
present

3. Ecosystem diversity – the distribution and abundance of habitats, biotic communities, and
ecological processes in the biosphere

I. Levels of Biodiversity

1. Biodiversity can be described at different levels: genetic, species, and ecosystem level

2. Genetic diversity plays an important role in the survival and adaptability of a species

3. Species diversity is a function of species richness and evenness

4. More variety of ecosystems means variable species exhibiting higher genetic variations in space
and time

= COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE, AND FUNCTION =

Compositional biodiversity – describes the type of elements and the number of representatives
present at each level (genes, species, and habitat) in an area.

- genetic composition of populations, identity and relative abundances of

species in a natural community, and kinds of habitats and communities
distributed across the landscape

Structural biodiversity – describes the variety of arrangement of these components, i.e. variety of
ways in which different habitats, species, or genes are arranged over space or time
 - vertical layering of trees in a forest, or the horizontal patchiness of
vegetation

Functional biodiversity – the variety of biological processes, functions or characteristics of a

particular ecosystem/area

Keystone species play essential community roles and their impact on the community or ecosystem
are much larger relative to its abundance, and more influential than expected

Umbrella species require such large areas of habitat that their protection might automatically
protect a large number of naturally co-occurring species in several ecosystems and habitats.

Indicator species are species that set a benchmark against which comparisons can be made after a
period of time whether conservation interventions are applied or not.

Flagship species are popular, charismatic species that serve as symbols and rallying points to
stimulate conservation awareness and action.

II. Biodiversity Hotspots

1. Biodiversity hotspots are where biodiversity is the richest and most threatened due to habitat loss
by human activity.

2. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, a region must have a high percentage of plant life found
nowhere else in the world and, it must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation.

3. Knowing why species are distributed as such can ensure that the largest percentage of endemic
species are protected

4. Using the hotspot concept as a tool in biodiversity conservation tends to leave out biologically-rich
cold places dubbed as biodiversity “coldspots”

5. There is an existing system of identifying and classifying endemic species at high risk of being lost
forever

6. The Philippines is one of the mega-diverse countries in the world, but it is also considered a
biodiversity hotspot

The top 10 biodiversity hotspots in the world where biodiversity is richest and most threatened:

1. Atlantic Forest of tropical South America 6. Indo-Burma

2. Cape Floristic Region, South Africa 7. Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands, Mexico and
Southern US
3. Cerrado, Brazil
8. Mesoamerica
4. Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
9. Polynesia-Micronesia
5. Himalaya
10. Philippines
The biodiversity hotspot concept highlights the close link between biodiversity and conservation.
The concept, suggested in 1988 by Norman Myers, originally arose due to the growing concern
among ecologists and environmentalists about the rapid loss of endemic species and habitat. On a
broader perspective, it covers not only endemism at the species level, but at the genetic and
ecosystem levels in any area or region with exceptionally high biodiversity. The hotspot concept has
become a tool in setting conservation priorities by helping stakeholders decide for cost-effective
strategies to preserve biodiversity. This tool was applied originally in terrestrial ecosystems but
somehow has been extended to marine ecosystems as well. Endemism means that a gene, a species,
or an ecosystem is only found or only lives in a particular region of the world, hence the loss of its
kind means that it is lost forever.

To ensure that the largest percentage of endemic species are protected, it is important to know
where species are found and understand the underlying factors that led to this non-random
distribution of species. The complex pattern of biodiversity distribution is determined by climate,
geology and the evolutionary history of the planet. These patterns are called "ecoregions" or "large
unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural
communities, and environmental conditions."

The hotspot concept, although very effective in driving biodiversity conservation efforts especially in
terms of international funding, tends to leave out the huge expanses of the cold places in the planet
dubbed as biodiversity “coldspots.”

The global authority on the conservation status of the natural world is the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are intended for an easily
understood system of identifying and classifying endemic species at high risk of being lost forever.
The resulting list could be used as one of the basis in setting priorities for conservation measures for
their protection.

9 categories set by the IUCN:

 Extinct (EX) – a taxon is Extinct “when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual
has died”

 Extinct in the wild (EW) – a taxon is Extinct in the Wild “when it is known only to survive in
cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past
range”

 Critically endangered (CR) – a taxon is Critically Endangered “when the best available
evidence (severe population decline, very small population, very small geographic area
occupied, or if the calculated probability of extinction during the next 10 years of >50%)
indicates that it is facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild”

 Endangered (EN) – a taxon is Endangered “when the best available evidence (large
population decline, small population, small geographic area occupied, or if the calculated
probability of extinction during the next 20 years is >20%) indicates that it is considered to
be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild”

 Vulnerable (VU) – a taxon is Vulnerable “when the best available evidence (large population
decline, small population, small geographic area occupied, or if the calculated probability of
 extinction during the next 20 years is at least 10%) indicates that it is considered to be facing
a very high risk of extinction in the wild”

 Near threatened (NT) – a taxon is Near Threatened “when it has been evaluated against the
criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is
close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future”

 Least concern (LC) – a taxon is Least Concern “when it has been evaluated against the
criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near
Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category”

 Data deficient (DD) – a taxon is Data Deficient “when there is inadequate information to
make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or
population status”

 Not evaluated (NE) – a taxon is Not Evaluated “when it is has not yet been evaluated against
the criteria”

Philippines is considered one of the 17 mega-diverse countries in the world when it comes to variety
of ecosystems, species and genetic resources. Many of the islands in the archipelago are believed to
have a very high degree of endemism. The country is home to more than 52,177 described species,
more than half of which is found nowhere else in the world. The geographic and ecological
characteristics of the country that allow it to support such a well-distributed diversity of species and
high endemism include: tropical location, a highly heterogeneous and complex topography, isolation
created by separate islands, and rugged topography. However, the country is also considered a
biodiversity hotspot because we are continually destroying our important resources, which in turn
has magnified the effects of natural disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons.

III. Causes and effects of biodiversity loss

1. Biodiversity loss in a greater scale means the extinction of species.

2. In a local scenario biodiversity loss refers to the reduction of species richness and the decline in
abundance of individuals of a species.

3. Degradation of ecosystems and consequent losses in species richness cause significant harm to
human well-being.

4. The main drivers of biodiversity loss are overpopulation, overexploitation, pollution, habitat
change, climate change and invasive species.

5. Some of the risks associated with biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystem are loss of
livelihood, poor health conditions and decline in economic and social stability

 Population growth

McKee et al. (2003) modeled the relationship between human population density and the number of
threatened mammal and bird species by nation. They found that human population density was a
key threat to the bird and mammal species depending on the ecological nature of a nation. In short,
the density of people is a key factor to species threat (Fig. 1). It
was further suggested that regulating human population growth
is a key component to biodiversity management and
conservation.

Fig. 1. Relationship between human population increase and

species extinction

 Habitat loss
o Deforestation

According to National Geographic (2017), agriculture is a major cause of deforestation when farmers
clear pristine forests to make room for the cultivation of agricultural crops. Logging operations to
produce paper and building materials are responsible for the loss of thousands of trees. Logs may
also be lost to new developments such as new housing and commercial areas as well as new roads
that lead to remote areas. Deforestation not only cause species reduction or loss but contributes to
climate change as well. The loss of trees cause water to return more quickly to the water cycle. The
absence of trees also contributes to global warming because trees absorb greenhouse gases.

o Loss of mangrove species

Mangroves are also highly threatened by habitat destruction due to agricultural and commercial
expansion. Climate change threatens mangrove species when temperatures and se levels rise. The
most affected in low areas or upstream in tidal estuaries are Brownlowia tersa, Bruguiera sexangula,
Nypa fruticans, Phoenix paludosa, Lumnitzera racemosa, Lumnitzera littorea, Sonneratia caseolaris,
Sonneratia lanceolate, and Xylocarpus granatum (Polidoro et al., 2010). Mangroves are also
threatened by overharvesting for domestic uses such as for firewood. Where mangrove diversity is
highest (Indo-Malay Philippine Archipelago), loss of area is also highest.

In the Philippines, mangrove degradation is attributed to its accessibility for use as firewood and the
long history of its conversion into aquaculture. Species affected include Acanthus, Acrostichum,
Aegiceras, Avicenna, Brownlowia, Bruguiera, Cerrops, Lumnitzera, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and
Xylocarpus as well as Campostemon philippinensis, Excoecaria agallocha, Heritiera lottoralis,
Kandelia candel, Nypa fruticans, Osbornia octodonta, Pemphis acidula, and Scyphiphora
hydrophyllacea.

o Invasive alien species (IAS)

When a living species (animal, plant or microorganism) not commonly found in a specific location
becomes dominant, it is referred to as invasive. Invasive alien species (IAS), as defined by the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), are “species whose introduction and/or spread outside
their natural past or present distribution threatens biological diversity”. Important mechanisms for
the transport of invasive species are human-related activities including ballast water of ships.
Invasion is finalized when IAS are able to reproduce rapidly in their new environments. The root
cause of biological invasion is actually trade, travel, and modern technology. Biological invasion has
been considered as an important driver of biodiversity loss. Economic losses in agricultural and
fisheries production have been attributed to biological invasion as well, including expenses related
to control and eradication of these invasive species.
The IUCN through the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) runs a website that is a good source
of information on invasive alien species including a search engine called the Global Invasive Species
Database (GISD) where you can look for specific invasive species of your interest. The ISSG, likewise,
published the World's 100 Worst Invasive Alien Species with available profiles of each species.

o Urbanization

The rapid urbanization resulting mainly from the continued increase in population has resulted to a
myriad of consequences to biodiversity. Although the relationship between urbanization and
biodiversity is quite complex, there is increasing evidence showing that urbanization increases
habitat loss and fragmentation, along with other physical transformations as urban areas expand.
Habitat destruction, considered by Fahrig (2001) as “the largest factor contributing to the current
global extinction event,” brought about by the growth of cities may lead to losses in biodiversity
through fragmentation or destruction of large areas of natural habitat on which many species
depend. On the other hand, an increase in biodiversity could occur but at the expense of native
species as they get displaced by introduced species including those that are invasive.

o Environmental pollution

According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF, 2017), humans are at risk from environmental
pollution. Contamination sources include toxic chemicals from industry, excess nutrients and
pesticides from farms, scattered trash from landfills, and smog in city skies.

Among all forms of pollution in Europe, nitrogen and phosphorus loading were found to be the
major driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystem disfunction (Biodiversity Information System for
Europe (BISE), 2017. When nitrogen rises to a certain level that exceeds the limit. This is called the
‘critical load’ and may lead to eutrophication (body of water contains excessive nutrients) that
damages biodiversity. The main sources of pollutants are agriculture and transport.

o Climate Change

Changes in temperature and weather conditions impact living organisms by directly affecting their
number and range of habitat. Increase in the amount of greenhouse gases also severely affects
biodiversity and ecosystems.

According to NASA Global Climate Change (2017), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), a group of more than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other countries, predicts
that increase in mean global temperature of 1- 3 C may lead to advantageous outcomes in some
regions but detrimental to others.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (2007) reported the following potential impacts of climate
change on biodiversity:

1. Warming of polar regions will lead to the addition of freshwater to the ocean;

2. A fast-rising growth in population will force the conversion from traditional to intensive
agricultural practices that may endanger wild sources of food staple;

3. Pests and diseases may hamper the plant food production;

4. Drylands which are already threatened under non-climate change conditions may lose more of the
little biodiversity that is left;

5. Forest species are very prone even to small changes in temperature and precipitation;
6. Inland water ecosystems wherein 20% of species are either extinct, threatened or endangered,
will be greatly impacted.

7. Island ecosystems which are small and highly dependent on coral reefs for survival are sensitive to
changes in temperature;

8. Marine coastal ecosystems which are already encumbered by overharvesting and habitat loss will
all the more be negatively affected.

9. Mountain ecosystems which are already under stress from increased human activities will suffer
more because there is limited capacity for species to move to higher elevations in response to
warming temperatures.

 Effects Of Biodiversity Loss

o Threats to food security

Biodiversity is comprised of genes and species that build valuable ecosystems which provide vital
sources for agricultural production. Agricultural biodiversity is a prerequisite to food security. On top
of genetic conservation measures, innovative agrisystems methods such as integrated pest
management and soil management approaches must be adopted.

o Threats to energy security

In developing countries, the source of more than half of the energy consumed is fuel from wood.
Women and children walk many kilometers to gather firewood for cooking and to heat homes. Fuel
from wood sometimes constitutes up to 80% of the total energy consumed in some African
countries where no alternative sources of fuel is available. Because developing countries are highly
populated, biodiversity loss is inevitable and consequently, energy sources are threatened. It is not
possible under these conditions to reduce energy consumption unless human population is
considerably reduced, too.

o Unavailability of clean water

Forests and watersheds are sources of clean water. It is of utmost importance that they remain
intact in pristine conditions. When forests and watersheds are disturbed by human activities, the
supply of available clean water for daily human needs are made uncertain. Citing a specific example
in New York City, U.S.A., Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) reported that it is more cost
efficient to protect the watershed to provide clean water. The city has saved $6-8B from not having
to build and operate a water treatment plant.

o Damage to social relationships

Scarcity of resources such as fresh water is known to have been caused by factors such as land
degradation and deforestation. The availability of water is limited in many parts of the world and
could give rise to social and political conflicts. The United Nations (2014) predicted that a quarter of
the world population or around 1.6 B people will experience economic water shortage in the 21st
century.

The availability of water in a number of regions (including the Middle East); depletion of fish stocks
off the east coast of Canada; and deforestation in Brazil, Thailand and elsewhere have been (or are
potential) sources of conflict.
According to Lornegan (1997), changes in atmospheric conditions brought about by global warming
could potentially disrupt society where availability of strategic resources are disrupted. Land use
may change a society’s ability to provide sufficient food for a rapidly increasing population.

SUMMARY

1. Biological diversity or biodiversity means the variability among living organisms from the land, the
seas, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part.

2. The three levels of biodiversity are genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

3. The levels of biodiversity can be described further in terms of composition, structure, and
function.

4. Biodiversity at all forms, levels, structure, and function provides many anthropocentric, as well as,
ecocentric benefits to humankind, hence the need to protect them.

5. Conservation entails the regular measuring and monitoring of biodiversity. A simpler and quicker
approach is the use of surrogate species that can represent a broader set of species and/or habitats
to support conservation or management strategies. Various surrogate approaches had been chosen,
such as the use of keystone, umbrella, indicator, and flagship species.

6. A biodiversity hotspot is a place on Earth that is both biologically rich (with high endemism) and
deeply threatened due to habitat loss by human activity. As of February 2016, there are 36
recognized biodiversity hotspots on Earth.

7. Major causes of biodiversity loss include population growth, habitat loss, and climate change.

8. Biodiversity loss can lead to threats to food and energy security, unavailability of clean water, and
damage to social relationships.