PHY 112: Measurement

in Physics
ISSAHAKU SONTAA JAKALIA
[email protected]/[email protected]/[email protected]
Contact: 0249316267
WhatsApp: 0249316267
Scientific Measurement

Using and Expressing

Measurements

Significant Figures
• Learning targets

• I can state the number of

significant figures in a number
and why they are significant.

• I can calculate problems and

have the correct number of
significant figures in the answer.
• You can easily read the temperature on this
thermometer to the nearest degree.

• You can also estimate the temperature to

about the nearest tenth of a degree by noting
the closeness of the liquid inside to the
calibrations.

• Can you estimate the temperature on this

thermometer?

• Suppose you estimated that the temperature

lies between 22°C and 23°C, at 22.9°C.
• This estimated number, 22.9°C, has
three digits.

• The first two digits (20 and 2) are

known with certainty, while the
rightmost digit (9) has been
estimated and involves some
uncertainty.

• These reported digits all convey useful

information and are called significant
figures.
 Significant Figures

• The significant figures in a

measurement include all of the
digits that are known, plus a last
digit that is estimated.

Measurements must always be

reported to the correct number
of significant figures because
calculated answers cannot be
more precise than measured
data.
• The width of the door can
be expressed as:
• 0.8 m for meter stick “a”
because 0 is known and
.8 is estimated
• 0.77 m for meter stick
“b” because 0.7 is
known and 0.07 is
estimated a.
• 0.772 m for meter stick
b.
“c” because 0.77 is
known and .2 is c.
estimated
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements
To determine whether a digit in a measured
value is significant, you need to apply the
following rules.
1. Every nonzero digit is significant.

Each of these measurements has

three significant figures:

24.7 meters
0.743 meter
714 meters
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements

2. Zeros appearing between nonzero

digits are significant. These are called
“sandwich zeros”.

Each of these measurements has

four significant figures: Why?

7003 meters
40.79 meters
1.503 meters
Rule 3: Trailing zeros following a non zero
digit and are significant only if there is a
decimal point.
Eg.:
0.00500
0.03040
2.30 x 10-5
4.500 x 1012
100.000
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements

Each of these measurements has how

many significant figures: WHY? (find
the captured & trailing zeros)

43.00 meters
1.010 meters
9.000 meters

Answer: Four significant figures (Refer to

rule 3)
 Summary
• Which digits are significant
figures?
1. All non zero digits (1 to 9)
2. sandwich zeros – which are
between non-zero digits
• Example 1,001
3. Trailing zeros – with a
decimal point
Which ZERO digits are NOT
significant figures?
• Leading zeros before real
numbers
• Example 0.000231
• Trailing zeros after real
numbers if no decimal is
written
• Example 1,000,000
 Determining Significant Figures in Measurements

Each of these measurements has how

many significant figures?

0.0071 meter = 7.1 x 10-3 meter

0.42 meter = 4.2 x 10-1 meter
0.000099 meter = 9.9 x 10-5 meter

These are All digits are

leading significant using
zeros scientific notation
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements

The zeros in these measurements are not

significant: WHY?

300 meters (one

? significant figure)
7000 meters (one
? significant figure)
27,210 meters (four
? significant figures)

No captured zeros nor trailing zeros, no

decimal points!
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements
Unlimited number of significant figures
There are two situations in which numbers
have an unlimited number of significant
figures. Counting and Equivalents

• The first involves counting.

23 people in your classroom
This measurement is a counted value,
so it has an unlimited number of
significant figures.
Determining Significant Figures in Measurements

• The second situation involves equivalents like

those found within a system of measurement.

Each of these numbers has an unlimited number

of significant figures.

60 min = 1 hr
100 cm = 1 m

Counting and equivalents do not limit the significant

figures in your calculations!
 Rules for significant figures

Rule 1: Non-zero digits are always significant.

Rule 2: “sandwich zeros” – any zeros between

two significant digits are significant.

Rule 3: Trailing zeros are significant if there is a

decimal point

Rule 4 – Unlimited significant figures

• Counted values
• equivalents
Suppose that the winner of a 100-meter dash
finishes the race in 9.98 seconds. The runner
in second place has a time of 10.05 seconds.
How many significant figures are in each
measurement? Give the rules 1-4.

There are three significant figures in 9.98

Rule 1- every nonzero digit is significant

There are four significant figures in 10.05

Rule 1- every nonzero digit is significant
Rule 2 – sandwich zeros between nonzero digits are
significant
Counting Significant Figures in Measurements
How many significant figures are in each measurement?
Give the rule(s) for counting significant figures

a. 123 m 3 sig-figs -– all nonzero numbers

5 sig-figs -– all nonzero numbers

b. 40,506 mm – sandwich zeros

c. 9.8000 x 104 m 5 sig-figs -– trailing zeros with a decimal are

significant
Counting Significant Figures in Measurements
How many significant figures are in each measurement?
Give the rule(s) for counting significant figures

a. 22 metersticks Unlimited- counting

b. 0.070 80 m 4 sig-figs - all nonzero numbers are significant

-sandwich zeros are significant
– trailing zeros with a decimal are significant

2 sigfigs -– all nonzero numbers

c. 98,000 m No decimal so zeros are placeholders
No captured & no trailing zeros
 Significant Figures in Calculations

Rounding

• To round a number, first decide how many

significant figures the answer should
have.

• Then round to that many digits, counting

from the left.

• “4 & below, let it go”

• “5 & above, give it a shove”
 Rounding Measurements

Round off each measurement to

the number of significant figures
shown in parentheses.
a. 314.721 meters (four) 314.7

b. 0.001 775 meter (two) 0.001 8

c. 8792 meters (two) 8800

 Rounding Measurements
The arrow points to the digit immediately
following the last significant digit. Write your
answer using scientific notation.

a. 314.721 meters – round to 4 significant figures

↑
2 is less than 5, so you do not round up.

314.7 meters = 3.147 x 102 meters

The arrow points to the digit immediately
following the second significant digit. Write your
answer using scientific notation.

b. 0.001 775 meters - round to 2 significant figures

↑
7 is greater than 5, so round up.

0.0018 meter = 1.8 x 10-3 meter

 Apply the concepts to this problem.
The arrow points to the digit immediately following
the second significant digit. Write your answer
using scientific notation.

c. 8792 meters - round to 2 significant figures

↑
9 is greater than 5, so round up.

8800 meters = 8.8 x 103 meters

Significant Figures in Calculations

• A calculated answer cannot be more

precise than the least precise
measurement from which it was
calculated.

• The calculated value must be rounded

to make it consistent with the
measurements from which it was
calculated based on the number of
significant figures.
Significant Figures in Calculations
Example
• A student measures the sides of a die and
had 1.8 cm on each side. He proceeded
to calculate the volume;
1.8 cm x 1.8 cm x 1.8 cm = 5.832 cm3.

Is his answer correctly expressed?

No. This is incorrect because the

measurements have tenths and the answer
is expressed using thousandths.
 Significant Figures in Calculations

Addition and Subtraction

The answer to an addition or

subtraction calculation should be
rounded to the same number of
decimal places (not digits) as the
measurement with the least
number of decimal places.
Significant Figures in Addition and
Subtraction

Give the answer to the correct

number of significant figures.
12.52 m + 349.0 m + 8.24 m
 Apply the concepts to this problem.

349.0 m has the

fewest decimal places, 12.52 m
just one. The answer 349.0 m
must be rounded to + 8.24 m
one decimal place 369.76 m

Ans: 369.8 m
 Significant Figures in Calculations

Multiplication and Division

• In calculations involving multiplication

and division, round the answer to the
same number of significant figures
as the measurement with the least
number of significant figures.
Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division

Give the answers to the correct

number of significant figures.
a. 7.55 m x 0.34 m
b. 2.10 m x 0.70 m
c. 2.4526 m2 ÷ 8.4 m
 Apply the concepts to this problem.
a. 7.55 m x 0.34 m
The second measurement (0.34 m) has the
least number of significant figures (two).
So, the answer must be rounded to two
significant figures.

a. 7.55 m x 0.34 m = 2.567 m2

= 2.6 m2
The second measurement (0.70 m)
has the least number of significant
figures (two). So, the answer must
be rounded to two significant
figures.

b. 2.10 m x 0.70 m = 1.47 m2

= 1.5 m2
 Apply the concepts to this problem
c. 2.4526 m2 ÷ 8.4 m
The second measurement (8.4 m2) has
the least number of significant figures
(two). So, the answer must be rounded
to two significant figures.

c. 2.4526 m2 ÷ 8.4 m = 0.291076 m

= 0.29 m
In what case are zeros significant in a
measured value?
•trailing zeros with a decimal point
•Sandwich zero’s – between real
numbers

•Sig Fig Rule when + or - numbers?

• Round to fewest decimal places

•Sig Fig Rule when x or ÷ numbers?

• Round to fewest significant figures
PHY 112: Measurement in Physics
ISSAHAKU SONTAA JAKALIA
[email protected]/[email protected]/[email protected]
Contact: 0249316267
WhatsApp: 0249316267
ERROR ANALYSIS
 RPK 2: 15 mins 07/02/2023
Evaluate the following and round them to the correct
number of significant digits.

a. 39.61 – 17.3 f. 5 x 3.999

b. 1.97 + 2.700 g. 84  .09
c. 100.8 – 45 h. 215.7 x .815
d. 296.0 + 3.9876 i. 200 + 23
e. 4.7929  4.9 j. 200 x 12
 INTRODUCTION
• In making physical measurements, one needs to keep
in mind that measurements are not completely
accurate.
• Each measurement will have some number of
significant figures and should also have some
indication as to how much we can "trust“ eg.
(38.20.01)C
• Thus in order to reliably interpret experimental data,
we need to have some idea as to the nature of the
"errors" associated with the measurements.
• Error is not a blunder such as
forgetting to position the decimal point in right place,
using the wrong units,
transposing numbers,
or any other mistake.
• Error is not your lab partner breaking your equipment.
• Error has to do with uncertainty in measurements.
• Therefore, even accepted values also have errors associated
with them; they are just better measurements than you will
be able to do in a three-hour undergraduate physics lab.
 Why are errors important?
Two measurements of body temperature before and
after a drug is administered are 38.2C and 38.4C

Is temperature rise significant? –

 It depends on the associated errors

(38.20.01)C and (38.4 0.01)C - significant

(38.20.5)C and (38.4 0.5)C – not significant

 DEFINITION OF ERROR
Error in a measurement, what is it?

• In science, the word “error” means the “uncertainty”

which accompanies every measurement

• It is a measure of lack of certainty in a measured value

• It is the difference between the measured value and the
true value of the physical quantity.
 DEFINITION OF ERROR
The uncertainty is the result of :
theoretical prediction measurement
by a sophisticated instrument
average evaluated from a very large number of
measurement

A discrepancy on the other hand is the difference

between two measured values of a physical quantity.
 ERRORS
Errors can be divided into two (2) main classes
namely;

• Random errors
• Systematic errors
 MISTAKES

Mistakes on the part of an individual such as

misreading scales
poor arithmetic and computational skills
wrongly transferring raw data to the final report
using the wrong theory and equations
These are a source of error but are not considered as
an experimental error
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
Systematic errors are associated with instruments or
the technique used.
• This error is due to the system or apparatus being
used

• Eg. A student read this length as 20 cm

 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
• Cause a random set of measurements to be affected
in the same way

• It is not always possible to obtain a numerical value

for systematic errors for a single measurements,
however, we can identify the causes for which your
measured value differs from the accepted one
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS RESULT FROM
Badly made instruments
Poorly calibrated instruments
Lag time and hysteresis
An instrument having a zero error, a form of
calibration
Poorly timed actions
Instrument parallax error
Note that systematic errors are not reduced by
multiple readings
 RANDOM ERRORS

• Random Errors result from unknown and

unpredictable variations in experimental
situations.
• Are due to unpredictable variations in
performance of the instrument and the operator
• usually random errors are caused by the person
doing the experiment
Random Errors result from
• Vibrations and air convection
• Misreading
• Variation in thickness of surface being measured
• Using less sensitive instrument when a more
sensitive instrument is available
Random Errors result from
• Using less sensitive instrument when a more
sensitive instrument is available
• Human parallax error
• Such as fluctuation in electrical voltage
• Changes in temperature, pressure, etc
 Reducing the Effects of Random Uncertainties
• Take multiple readings
• When a series of readings are taken for a
measurement, then the arithmetic mean of the
reading is taken as the most probable answer
• The greatest deviation from the mean is taken as the
absolute error
 Accuracy
In measurement, What is accuracy?
• Accuracy is an indication of how close a measurement
is to the accepted value indicated by the relative or
percentage error in the measurement

• An accurate experiment is one that has a low

systematic error, where as a precise experiment is one
that has a small random error.
 Precision
What about precision?
• Precision is an indication of the agreement
among a number of measurements made in the
same way indicated by the absolute error

• A precise experiment has a low random error

Bull’s eye game
Accurate, not precise
Precise, not accurate
• Low systematic error
• High systematic error
• High random error
• Low random error

Neither Accurate nor precise Accurate and precise

• High systematic error • Low systematic error
• High random error • Low random error
 Mathematical representation of uncertainties
• Absolute error (Absolute uncertainty) –
It is the magnitude of difference between true value
of quantity and the measurement value.

Absolute Error;
∆𝐴𝑒 = 𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
where 𝑌𝑛 is the expected value and 𝑋𝑛 is the
measured value
 Mathematical representation of uncertainties

• Relative error (Fractional uncertainty)–

The ratio of absolute error to the true value of the
physical quantity is called relative error.

Relative Error;
𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛 ∆𝐴𝑒
∆𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑌𝑛 𝑌𝑛
 Mathematical representation of uncertainties

• Percentage error (Percentage Uncertainty) –

It is the expression of the relative error as a
percentage

Percentage Error

𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
∆𝑃𝑒 = × 100% = ∆𝑅𝑒 × %
𝑌𝑛
 ABSOLUTE/FRACTIONAL ERRORS AND
PERCENTAGE ERRORS
• A measured value should include an estimate of the
level of confidence associated with the value and
express as;

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 ± 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Eg. Length of table 𝐿 = 3. 25 ± 0.02 𝑐𝑚

 Example:
If the mass of a body is (20.0 ± 0.2) kg.

1. Determine;
i. The absolute uncertainty
ii. The relative uncertainty
iii. Percentage uncertainty

2. Express the mass in terms of the relative and

percentage uncertainties
 Solution
We can express
• absolute uncertainty = ± 0.2 𝑘𝑔
0.2
• relative uncertainty = = ±0.01
20

• Percentage uncertainty = 0.01 × 100% = 1%

So mass of a body = 20.00 ± 0.01 kg or 20 kg ± 1%

 ESTIMATING RANDOM ERRORS
• When multiple readings are taking in an experiment to
reduce the random errors, an average or mean needs
to be calculated.
• The absolute uncertainty is then calculated using
statistical method
• The standard deviation is the estimate of the absolute
uncertainty in each measurement
 ESTIMATING RANDOM ERRORS
• For a set of 𝑛 measurements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 the
mean, 𝑥,ҧ is give by
𝑛
1
𝑥ҧ = ෍ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1

where 𝑛 is the total number of measurements taking

The standard deviation 𝜎𝑥 is calculated as

σ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎𝑥 =
𝑁−1
The uncertainty in the mean

𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑥ҧ =
𝑁
 STEPS
1. Take multiple measurement
2. Calculate the mean value of the measurement
3. Find the standard deviation of each measurement
from the mean
4. Square each deviation, add the squares, and
divide by this N-1
5. Take the square root of this answer. You now have
the standard deviation
6. Divide by 𝑁, where 𝑁 is the number of
measurements
For a set of 4 measurements taking at the lab
𝐿𝑖 𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿ത 𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿ത 2 𝑐𝑚2
27.7 0.2 0.04
27.1 0.4 0.16
27.8 0.3 0.09
27.5 0.0 0.00
𝐿ത = 27.5
෍ 𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿ത 2 = 0.29

σ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎𝐿 = = 0.3 cm
𝑁−1
𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝐿ത = = 0.2 cm
𝑁
𝐿ത = 27.5 ± 0.2 cm
 ERROR PROPAGATION
• Error propagation is the process of determining the
uncertainty of an answer obtained from a
calculation.
• Eg. Estimating the error associated with Area of an
object from the measurement of length and width of
the object; 𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊
• The maximum possible error in the resultant
quantity can be computed as follows provided the
errors are dependent
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF UNCERTAINTIES
When the quantities add or subtract to give the final answer
then the absolute Uncertainty adds
• If 𝐴, 𝐵 are two quantities and

𝑍 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 or 𝑍 = 𝐴 − 𝐵
where ∆𝐴, ∆𝐵, ∆𝑍 are uncertainties in 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑍 respectively

then
∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
 Example

Two bodies have masses

𝑚1 = (20.0 ± 0.2) 𝑘𝑔 and

𝑚2 = (30.0 + 0.4) 𝑘𝑔.

Determine the total mass; 𝑀, of these bodies?

 Solution
Total Mass M = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
M = 20.0 + 30.0 = 50.0 𝑘𝑔

Absolute uncertainty ∆𝑀 = ∆𝑚1 + ∆𝑚2

, ∆𝑀 = 0.2 + 0.4 = 0.6

The total Mass;

M = 50.0 ± 0.6 𝑘𝑔
 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF UNCERTAINTIES
When the quantities multiplies or divides to give the final answer then the
relative or fractional experimental uncertainty adds
𝐴
If 𝐴, 𝐵 are two quantities and 𝑍 = 𝐴. 𝐵 or 𝑍 =
𝐵
where ∆𝐴, ∆𝐵, ∆𝑍 are uncertainties in 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑍 respectively

then
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= +
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵

The last significant figure digit in the final answer is limited by the absolute
error and vice versa depending on the available information.
 Example
The length; 𝑙 and breath; 𝑏 of a rectangular field is
given as 𝑙 = (200 ± 5) 𝑚 and 𝑏 = (50 ± 2) 𝑚.
Calculate the area and determine its relative error?
 Solution
The relative error;
∆𝐴 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑏
= +
𝐴 𝑙 𝑏
∆𝐴 5 2
= + = ±0.056 = ±0.06 𝑚
𝐴 200 50
PHY 112: Measurement in Physics
ISSAHAKU SONTAA JAKALIA
[email protected]/[email protected]/[email protected]
Contact: 0249316267
WhatsApp: 0249316267
Dimension and dimensional
analysis
 What is dimension of a physical quantity?

•Is a physical property which describes a way

any physical quantity is related to
fundamental physical quantities such as Mass,
Length, Time, Current and Temperature
 How do we represent them?
• The dimension of a physical quantity can be
represented with an algebraic symbol assigned to the
individual quantity eg. L, M, T, A and θ for length,
mass, times, current and temperature respectively.

• A square bracket (parenthesis) around the physical

quantity connotes “dimension of”.
• Eg. Dimension of mass; [Mass] = M,
Dimension of fundamental quantities
Fundamental Dimension Dimension
quantity symbol
Mass [Mass] M
Length [Length] L
Time [Time] T
Current [current] A
Temperature [Temperature] θ
 What is dimensional analysis?

•Is the analysis of the relationships between

different physical quantities by identifying their
fundamental dimensions such as length, mass,
time.
 What is dimensional analysis?
• It follows that the dimension of;

[𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] = 𝐿 × 𝐿 × 𝐿 = 𝐿3

[𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠] 𝑀 −3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 3 = 𝑀𝐿
[𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒] 𝐿
 What is dimensional analysis?
• It follows that the dimension of;

[𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡] 𝐿
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 𝐿𝑇 −1
[𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒] 𝑇

[𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒] 𝐿
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 𝐿𝑇 −1
[𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒] 𝑇
 Class Exercise
Determine the dimensions for the following?
(i) Acceleration
(ii) force
(iii)Work
(iv)Kinetic energy
(v) Potential energy
(vi)Pressure
(vii)Momentum
 [𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦] 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 𝐿𝑇 −2
[𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒] 𝑇

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 × 𝐿 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2

1 2
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣
2−1 2
𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑀 × 𝐿𝑇 = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2
 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 −1 −2
𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 𝑀𝐿 𝑇
𝐿2

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

−1 −1
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀 × 𝐿𝑇 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇
15/02/2023 13
 List of fundamental & derived dimensions

15/02/2023 14
 Why Dimensional Analysis?
It is a useful technique in all branches of science and
engineering
Basic premises are;
1. Physical quantities have dimensions
2. All equations developed from basic laws of
physics are dimensionally homogeneous
• We can develop a useful theory from this
information
 Law of dimensional analysis (principle of
homogeneity)
• State that “The equation is dimensionally correct if
the dimensions on the left hand side of the equation
are equal to the dimensions on the right hand side of
the equation, if not the equation is not dimensionally
correct”.

• Thus the dimension of an equation is said to be

homogeneous if all the terms in it have the
same dimensions or units.
 Determining the validity of a formula
Student A and student B wrote the following
1 2
formulas; 𝑣 = 𝑔ℎ and 𝑣 = 𝑔ℎ respectively as
2
the velocity of an object;

• How do you determine the validity of the formulas?

 Checking validity of formula
1 2
𝑣 = 𝑔ℎ 𝑣= 𝑔ℎ
2
𝐿 𝐿 2 𝐿 𝐿
= 2𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 2

𝐿 𝐿3
= 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝐿 𝐿2
=
𝑇 𝑇2
• Terms do not match, not • Terms matched, hence a valid formula
valid formula
Four category of physical quantities
I. Dimensional variables
II. Dimensionless variables
III. Dimensional constant
IV.Dimensionless constant
 Dimensional variables
• Those physical quantities that have dimensions but do
not have fixed values.
• Eg. Force, velocity, work, power, etc

• Thus, one force may have a magnitude of 4 N whiles

another may have a magnitude of 10 N but both have
dimensions of 𝑀𝐿𝑇 2 .
 DIMENSIONLESS VARIABLES
• These are physical quantities which have neither
dimensions nor fixed value.

• E.g. Specific gravity, strain, angle, etc.

DIMENSIONAL CONSTANT
• Those physical quantities which possess dimensions
and have fixed value.

• E.g. Gravitational constant, planks constant,

velocity of light, etc.
 Dimensionless constant

•Those quantities which do not possess

dimensions but have fixed value.

•E.g. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7…etc.
 Uses of dimension equations
Deducing units of a physical quantity.
To check the correctness of the physical relation.
To recapitulate a forgotten formula.
To derive the relationship between different physical
quantities.
To convert one system of unit to another.
To find the dimensions of constant in a given relation.
 Deducing Unit of a physical quantity
• In deducing units of a physical quantity, units
must have same dimensions as the quantity to
which they apply.

−2
• Hence the unit of acceleration is
𝑚𝑠 because
−2
the dimension of acceleration is 𝐿𝑇 ;
−3
• And the unit of density is 𝑘𝑔𝑚 because the
−3
dimension of density is 𝑀𝐿
PHY 112: Measurement in Physics
ISSAHAKU SONTAA JAKALIA
[email protected]/[email protected]/[email protected]
Contact: 0249316267
WhatsApp: 0249316267
ERROR ANALYSIS
 RPK 2: 15 mins 07/02/2023
Evaluate the following and round them to the correct
number of significant digits.

a. 39.61 – 17.3 f. 5 x 3.999

b. 1.97 + 2.700 g. 84  .09
c. 100.8 – 45 h. 215.7 x .815
d. 296.0 + 3.9876 i. 200 + 23
e. 4.7929  4.9 j. 200 x 12
 INTRODUCTION
• In making physical measurements, one needs to keep
in mind that measurements are not completely
accurate.
• Each measurement will have some number of
significant figures and should also have some
indication as to how much we can "trust“ eg.
(38.20.01)C
• Thus in order to reliably interpret experimental data,
we need to have some idea as to the nature of the
"errors" associated with the measurements.
• Error is not a blunder such as
forgetting to position the decimal point in right place,
using the wrong units,
transposing numbers,
or any other mistake.
• Error is not your lab partner breaking your equipment.
• Error has to do with uncertainty in measurements.
• Therefore, even accepted values also have errors associated
with them; they are just better measurements than you will
be able to do in a three-hour undergraduate physics lab.
 Why are errors important?
Two measurements of body temperature before and
after a drug is administered are 38.2C and 38.4C

Is temperature rise significant? –

 It depends on the associated errors

(38.20.01)C and (38.4 0.01)C - significant

(38.20.5)C and (38.4 0.5)C – not significant

 DEFINITION OF ERROR
Error in a measurement, what is it?

• In science, the word “error” means the “uncertainty”

which accompanies every measurement

• It is a measure of lack of certainty in a measured value

• It is the difference between the measured value and the
true value of the physical quantity.
 DEFINITION OF ERROR
The uncertainty is the result of :
theoretical prediction measurement
by a sophisticated instrument
average evaluated from a very large number of
measurement

A discrepancy on the other hand is the difference

between two measured values of a physical quantity.
 ERRORS
Errors can be divided into two (2) main classes
namely;

• Random errors
• Systematic errors
 MISTAKES

Mistakes on the part of an individual such as

misreading scales
poor arithmetic and computational skills
wrongly transferring raw data to the final report
using the wrong theory and equations
These are a source of error but are not considered as
an experimental error
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
Systematic errors are associated with instruments or
the technique used.
• This error is due to the system or apparatus being
used

• Eg. A student read this length as 20 cm

 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
• Cause a random set of measurements to be affected
in the same way

• It is not always possible to obtain a numerical value

for systematic errors for a single measurements,
however, we can identify the causes for which your
measured value differs from the accepted one
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS RESULT FROM
Badly made instruments
Poorly calibrated instruments
Lag time and hysteresis
An instrument having a zero error, a form of
calibration
Poorly timed actions
Instrument parallax error
Note that systematic errors are not reduced by
multiple readings
 RANDOM ERRORS

• Random Errors result from unknown and

unpredictable variations in experimental
situations.
• Are due to unpredictable variations in
performance of the instrument and the operator
• usually random errors are caused by the person
doing the experiment
Random Errors result from
• Vibrations and air convection
• Misreading
• Variation in thickness of surface being measured
• Using less sensitive instrument when a more
sensitive instrument is available
Random Errors result from
• Using less sensitive instrument when a more
sensitive instrument is available
• Human parallax error
• Such as fluctuation in electrical voltage
• Changes in temperature, pressure, etc
 Reducing the Effects of Random Uncertainties
• Take multiple readings
• When a series of readings are taken for a
measurement, then the arithmetic mean of the
reading is taken as the most probable answer
• The greatest deviation from the mean is taken as the
absolute error
 Accuracy
In measurement, What is accuracy?
• Accuracy is an indication of how close a measurement
is to the accepted value indicated by the relative or
percentage error in the measurement

• An accurate experiment is one that has a low

systematic error, where as a precise experiment is one
that has a small random error.
 Precision
What about precision?
• Precision is an indication of the agreement
among a number of measurements made in the
same way indicated by the absolute error

• A precise experiment has a low random error

Bull’s eye game
Accurate, not precise
Precise, not accurate
• Low systematic error
• High systematic error
• High random error
• Low random error

Neither Accurate nor precise Accurate and precise

• High systematic error • Low systematic error
• High random error • Low random error
 Mathematical representation of uncertainties
• Absolute error (Absolute uncertainty) –
It is the magnitude of difference between true value
of quantity and the measurement value.

Absolute Error;
∆𝐴𝑒 = 𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
where 𝑌𝑛 is the expected value and 𝑋𝑛 is the
measured value
 Mathematical representation of uncertainties

• Relative error (Fractional uncertainty)–

The ratio of absolute error to the true value of the
physical quantity is called relative error.

Relative Error;
𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛 ∆𝐴𝑒
∆𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑌𝑛 𝑌𝑛
 Mathematical representation of uncertainties

• Percentage error (Percentage Uncertainty) –

It is the expression of the relative error as a
percentage

Percentage Error

𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
∆𝑃𝑒 = × 100% = ∆𝑅𝑒 × %
𝑌𝑛
 ABSOLUTE/FRACTIONAL ERRORS AND
PERCENTAGE ERRORS
• A measured value should include an estimate of the
level of confidence associated with the value and
express as;

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
= 𝑏𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 ± 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Eg. Length of table 𝐿 = 3. 25 ± 0.02 𝑐𝑚

 Example:
If the mass of a body is (20.0 ± 0.2) kg.

1. Determine;
i. The absolute uncertainty
ii. The relative uncertainty
iii. Percentage uncertainty

2. Express the mass in terms of the relative and

percentage uncertainties
 Solution
We can express
• absolute uncertainty = ± 0.2 𝑘𝑔
0.2
• relative uncertainty = = ±0.01
20

• Percentage uncertainty = 0.01 × 100% = 1%

So mass of a body = 20.00 ± 0.01 kg or 20 kg ± 1%

 ESTIMATING RANDOM ERRORS
• When multiple readings are taking in an experiment to
reduce the random errors, an average or mean needs
to be calculated.
• The absolute uncertainty is then calculated using
statistical method
• The standard deviation is the estimate of the absolute
uncertainty in each measurement
 ESTIMATING RANDOM ERRORS
• For a set of 𝑛 measurements 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 the
mean, 𝑥,ҧ is give by
𝑛
1
𝑥ҧ = ෍ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1

where 𝑛 is the total number of measurements taking

The standard deviation 𝜎𝑥 for the sample is calculated as

σ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎𝑥 =
𝑛−1
The uncertainty in the mean

𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
 STEPS
1. Take multiple measurement
2. Calculate the mean value of the measurement
3. Find the standard deviation of each measurement
from the mean
4. Square each deviation, add the squares, and
divide by this n-1
5. Take the square root of this answer. You now have
the standard deviation
6. Divide by 𝑛, where 𝑛 is the number of
measurements
For a set of 4 measurements taking at the lab
𝐿𝑖 𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿ത 𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿ത 2 𝑐𝑚2
27.7 0.2 0.04
27.1 0.4 0.16
27.8 0.3 0.09
27.5 0.0 0.00
𝐿ത = 27.5
෍ 𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿ത 2 = 0.29

σ 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ 2
𝜎𝐿 = = 0.3 cm
𝑛−1
𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝐿ത = = 0.2
𝑛
𝐿ത = 27.5 ± 0.2 𝑐𝑚
 ERROR PROPAGATION
• Error propagation is the process of determining the
uncertainty of an answer obtained from a
calculation.
• Eg. Estimating the error associated with Area of an
object from the measurement of length and width of
the object; 𝐴 = 𝐿 × 𝑊
• The maximum possible error in the resultant
quantity can be computed as follows provided the
errors are dependent
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF UNCERTAINTIES
When the quantities add or subtract to give the final answer
then the absolute Uncertainty adds
• If 𝐴, 𝐵 are two quantities and

𝑍 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 or 𝑍 = 𝐴 − 𝐵
where ∆𝐴, ∆𝐵, ∆𝑍 are uncertainties in 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑍 respectively

then
∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
 Example

Two bodies have masses

𝑚1 = (20.0 ± 0.2) 𝑘𝑔 and

𝑚2 = (30.0 + 0.4) 𝑘𝑔.

Determine the total mass; 𝑀, of these bodies?

 Solution
Total Mass M = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
M = 20.0 + 30.0 = 50.0 𝑘𝑔

Absolute uncertainty ∆𝑀 = ∆𝑚1 + ∆𝑚2

, ∆𝑀 = 0.2 + 0.4 = 0.6

The total Mass;

M = 50.0 ± 0.6 𝑘𝑔
 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF UNCERTAINTIES
When the quantities multiplies or divides to give the final answer then the
relative or fractional experimental uncertainty adds
𝐴
If 𝐴, 𝐵 are two quantities and 𝑍 = 𝐴. 𝐵 or 𝑍 =
𝐵
where ∆𝐴, ∆𝐵, ∆𝑍 are uncertainties in 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑍 respectively

then
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= +
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵

The last significant figure digit in the final answer is limited by the absolute
error and vice versa depending on the available information.
 Example
The length; 𝑙 and breath; 𝑏 of a rectangular field is
given as 𝑙 = (200 ± 5) 𝑚 and 𝑏 = (50 ± 2) 𝑚.
Calculate the area and determine its relative error?
 Solution
The relative error;
∆𝐴 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑏
= +
𝐴 𝑙 𝑏
∆𝐴 5 2
= + = ±0.065 = ±0.07 𝑚
𝐴 200 50
 EXPONENTIAL
If we have a measured physical quantity 𝐴 = 𝑎 ± ∆𝑎
and another quantity defined as,

𝑛
𝐶=𝐴
then relative error in 𝐶 is 𝑛 multiplied by the relative
error in 𝐴.

∆𝐶 ∆𝑎
= 𝑛.
𝐶 𝑎
 Finding the percentage error of exponetials
Given that 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑛 ,
Let 𝜕𝑙 be the error in measured length 𝑙,
Taking the differential of 𝐴;
𝜕𝐴
= 𝑛𝑙𝑛−1
𝜕𝑙
Rearranging, we have;
𝜕𝐴 = 𝑛𝑙𝑛−1 𝜕𝑙
And the percentage error in 𝐴 is given by

𝑛𝑙𝑛−1 𝜕𝑙
= 𝑛
× 100%
𝑙
And the percentage error in 𝐴 is given by

𝑙𝑛
𝑛
𝑙
= 𝑛 𝜕𝑙 × 100%
𝑙𝑛
𝑛. 𝑙 . 𝜕𝑙
= 𝑛 × 100%
𝑙 .𝑙
𝑛𝜕𝑙 𝜕𝑙
= × 100% = 𝑛 × 100%
𝑙 𝑙

= 𝑛 × % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑙
 Finding the Percentage Error in an expression
Eg. Determine the percentage error of the expression

𝑛 𝑚 𝑝
𝑍 = 𝑘𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
where 𝑧, 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are the numerical values of the
physical quantities 𝑍, 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 respectively, 𝑘 being a
constant
 Solution
𝑛 𝑚 𝑝
Given that 𝑍 = 𝑘𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
where 𝑧, 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are the numerical values of the physical
quantities 𝑍, 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 respectively, 𝑘 being a constant; thus;

z = 𝑘𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑝
Taking the natural logs gives

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑘 + 𝑛 ln 𝑎 + 𝑚 ln 𝑏 + 𝑝 ln 𝑐
Differentiating each term;
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑏 𝜕𝑐
=𝑛 +𝑚 +𝑝
𝑧 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
 Finding the Percentage Error in an expression

• To get the percentage error, we multiply each term by

100%

𝜕𝑧
× 100%
𝑧
𝜕𝑎 𝜕𝑏 𝜕𝑐
=𝑛 × 100% + 𝑚 × 100% + 𝑝 × 100%
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑧
= (𝑛 × % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎) + (𝑚 × % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑏) + (𝑝
× % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐)
Example
A ball has a radius 𝑟 = 0.1246 ± 0.002 𝑚 and mass of 𝑚 = 2.35 ±
0.04 𝑘𝑔. Find the density and its uncertainty.
Solution
𝑚
Density of ball, 𝜌 =
𝑣
4
but Volume of a ball (assuming its sphere) 𝑣 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

𝑚 3𝑚 3 × 2.35 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = = 290.018 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3
4 3 4𝜋𝑟 3 4 × 𝜋 × 0.1246 𝑚 3
𝜋𝑟
3
 𝑚 3𝑚
• The uncertainty in density 𝜌 = =
𝑣 4𝜋𝑟 3
• Taking logarithms to base e;
ln 𝜌 = ln 3 + ln 𝑚 + ln 4 + ln 𝜋 + 3 ln 𝑟
Differentiating each and simplifying, we have;

𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝑚 𝜕𝑟 0.04 𝑘𝑔 0.0002 𝑚
= +3 = +3 = 0.0218
𝜌 𝑚 𝑟 2.35 𝑘𝑔 0.1246 𝑚

𝜕𝜌
𝜕𝜌 = × 𝜌 = 0.0218 × 290.018 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 = 6.32 = ±6
𝜌
𝜌 = (290 ± 6)𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3 or 2.90 ± 0.06 × 102 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚−3
 Example
• Determine the expressions for the compounding errors in each of the
following
𝜋𝑑 3
i. Volume of a sphere given by 𝑉 = where 𝑑 is the measured diameter
6
 Solution
(i)
𝜋𝑑 3
Given that 𝑉 =
6
Taking the natural logs gives
ln 𝑉 = ln 𝜋 + 3 ln 𝑑 + ln 6
Differentiating each term;
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑑
=3
𝑉 𝑑
To get the percentage error, we multiply each term by 100%

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑑
× 100% = 3 × 100%
𝑉 𝑑

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 = (3 × % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑)
 Example
• Determine the expressions for the compounding errors in each of the
following
𝜋𝑑 2 ℎ
i. Volume of cylinder given by 𝑉 = where 𝑑 is the measured
4
diameter
 Solution
(ii)
𝜋𝑑 2 ℎ
Given that 𝑉 =
4
Taking the natural logs gives
ln 𝑉 = ln 𝜋 + 2 ln 𝑑 + ln ℎ + ln 4
Differentiating each term;
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑑 𝜕ℎ
=2 +
𝑉 𝑑 ℎ
To get the percentage error, we multiply each term by 100%

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑑 𝜕ℎ
× 100% = 2 × 100% + × 100%
𝑉 𝑑 ℎ

% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 = 2 × % 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑 + (% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 ℎ)

Try these
1. Density of a substance is d = m/v , m = (20.1 ± 0.2) kg and
v= (10.2 ± 0.1) m3. Calculate the percentage error of d?
𝑎2 𝑏 3
2. A physical quantity Z is given by 𝑍 = 4 . Calculate the relative
𝑐
and percentage error in 𝑍.

3. The percentage errors in the measurement of mass and speed are

2%, 3% respectively. How much will be the max error in the
estimate of the Kinetic Energy (KE)?
𝑅𝜋𝑑 2
4. Resistivity of a wire is given by ρ = where 𝑅, 𝑑 and 𝑙 are
4𝑙
the measured Resistance, diameter and length of wire respectively
COMBINING ANSWERS WITH UNCERTAINTIES
1. Determine the uncertainty first
2. Round the uncertainty to 1 significant figure
3. Examine the number. Keep the same number places after the
decimal in the answer as you have in the uncertainty.
Eg. If a graph gives a slope of 2.7061 with an uncertainty of 0.005611.
The uncertainty is rounded to 0.006 (1 s.f). This values has three places
after the decimal so the value of 2.7061 is also rounded to 2.706. the
final answer is written as 2.706 ± 0.006