MATH1020 General Mathematics

Chapter 2: Functions

2.1 Review on Algebra

We first review some useful formulas.

Let a, b be real numbers and n is a positive integer. Then

(a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3
a2 − b2 = (a + b) (a − b)
a3 + b3 = (a + b) a2 − ab + b2

a3 − b3 = (a − b) a2 + ab + b2

an − bn = (a − b) an + an−1 b + · · · + abn−1 + bn


(
√ a if a > 0;
a2 = |a| =
−a if a < 0.

1 √
Next are some formulas for powers. Recall that if n is even, then a n = n
a is defined only
when a ≥ 0.

Let a, p, q be real numbers and m, n be integers. Then the

followings are identities whenever defined.

a0 = 1 a1 = a
m √
an = n
am a−p = 1/ap
ap · aq = ap+q ap /aq = ap−q
ap · bp = (ab)p ap /bp = (a/b)p
(ap )q = apq

2-1
Chapter 2: Functions 2-2

Rationalization

We also want to review the technique of rationalization.

Example 1 (Rationalize Denominator).

√ √ √ √
2 2 3 6
√ =√ ·√ =
3 3 3 3
√ √ √ √ √
4− 3 4− 3 5− 3 20 − 9 3 + 3 23 − 9 3
√ = √ · √ = √ =
5+ 3 5+ 3 5− 3 52 − ( 3)2 22

Example 2 (Rationalize Numerator).

√ √ √
2 2 2 2
√ =√ ·√ =√
3 3 2 6
√ √ √ √
1+ x 1+ x 1− x 1 − ( x)2 1
√ = √ · √ = √ = √
1− x 1− x 1− x (1 − x)(1 − x) 1− x
√ √
√ x2 + 4x − x x2 + 4x + x x2 + 4x − x2 4x
x2 + 4x − x = ·√ =√ =√
1 x2 + 4x + x x2 + 4x + x x2 + 4x + x

2.2 Difference Quotient (for calculus later)

In this section, we will consider expressions of the form

f (x) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)

or
x−a h
Note that they are equal to the slope of the line joining the point (a, f (a)) to (x, f (x)) or
(a + h, f (a + h)) on the graph of f . They are called difference quotients and will be
considered in calculus.

Example 3. Simplify the following difference quotients.

f (x) − f (a)
1. , where f (x) = x3 ;
x−a
g(a + h) − g(a) 1
2. , where g(x) = √ .
h x+1
Chapter 2: Functions 2-3

Solution. 1.
f (x) − f (a) x3 − a3
=
x−a x−a
(x − a)(x2 + ax + a2 )
=
x−a
= x2 + ax + a2

2.
1 1
√ −√
f (a + h) − f (a) a+h+1 a +1
=
h √ h√ √ √
a+1− a+h+1 a+1+ a+h+1
= √ √ ·√ √
h· a+h+1· a+1 a+1+ a+h+1
(a + 1) − (a + h + 1)
= √ √ √ √
h · a + h + 1 · a + 1( a + 1 + a + h + 1)
−h
= √ √ √ √
h · a + h + 1 · a + 1( a + 1 + a + h + 1)
−1
= √ √ √ √
a + h + 1 · a + 1( a + 1 + a + h + 1)
Chapter 2: Functions 2-4

Remark. The expression of the last line is ”simpler“ than that of the first one from
the point of view of taking limit h → 0. It will be more apparent when we discuss
derivatives in calculus later.

2.3 Functions

Let A, B be sets. A function

f :A→B
is a rule of assigning each element a ∈ A to an element f (a) ∈ B. The set A and B is called
the domain and codomain of f respectively. We will often denote the domain of f by Df .

The range of f is defined to be

Rf = {f (a) : a ∈ A},

which is the set of all values of f .

We will focus on functions whose domain and codomain are subsets of real numbers. Let
us recall the notations for certain subsets of real numbers:

R The set of all real numbers.

Q The set of all rational nubmers.
Z The set of all integers.
N The set of all natural numbers {1, 2, 3, . . .}.

Let a, b ∈ R or ±∞. Then

(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b} (Open interval)

[ a, b ] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} (Closed interval)
[ a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}
(a, b ] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}

Example 4. Let f : R → R with f (x) = x2 − 1. Both the domain and codomain of f is R.

f (0) = −1 ⇒ −1 ∈ Rf .
Chapter 2: Functions 2-5

f (2) = 3 ⇒ 3 ∈ Rf .
However, −2 ∈
/ Rf . It is because for any x ∈ Df = R,

f (x) = x2 − 1 ≥ 0 − 1 = −1

Since −2 < −1, that means f (x) 6= −2 and so −2 ∈

/ Rf .

From the graph of f , we can see that Rf = [−1, ∞).

Implied domain

If a function f (x) is given by an expression without specifying its domain, then its domain
will be assumed to be the largest subset of R such that the expression is defined. This
domain is called the implied domain or natural domain.

Some useful rules for finding implied domains:

1. Denominator cannot be zero.

2. For log(g(x)) to be defined, we need g(x) > 0.

p
3. Let m be a positive even number. Then for m h(x) = h(x)1/m to be defined, we need
h(x) ≥ 0.

Example 5. Find the implied domains of the following functions.

1. log(x2 − 3x − 10)
x−3
2. √
4
3−x
Chapter 2: Functions 2-6

3. (x + 2)2/3
1 1
4. f (x) − g(x), where f (x) = and g(x) = .
1+x 1−x

Solution. 1. For log(x2 − 3x − 10) to be defined, we need

x2 − 3x − 10 > 0
(x − 5)(x + 2) > 0
x>5 or x < −2
Hence, the implied domain is (−∞, −2) ∪ (5, ∞).
2. For the fourth root to be defined, we need
3 − x ≥ 0.
Moreover, we need the denominator
√
4
3 − x 6= 0.
Hence, for the given function to be defined, we need
3−x>0⇒x<3
Hence, the implied domain is (−∞, 3).
p
3. Note that (x + 2)5/3 = 3 (x + 2)5 . Since 3 is odd, the root is defined for any values of
(x + 2)5 . Hence the implied domain is R = (−∞, ∞).
4. For f (x) − g(x) to be defined, we need both f (x) and g(x) to be defined. Hence, the
implied domain of f − g is
Df −g = Df ∩ Dg
= (R \ {−1}) ∩ (R \ {1})
= R \ {±1}
= (−∞, 1) ∪ (−1, 1) ∪ (1, ∞).

Operations on Functions

Let f (x), g(x) be functions. Define

(f ± g)(x) = f (x) ± g(x) (Sum / Difference)
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x) (Product)
(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x) (Quotient)
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) (Composition)
Chapter 2: Functions 2-7

In the composition g ◦ f , the output of f becomes the input of g:

f g
x 7−→ f (x) 7−→ g(f (x)))

The domains of these functions are

Df ±g = Df ∩ Dg
Df g = Df ∩ Dg
Df /g = (Df ∩ Dg ) \ {x ∈ Dg : g(x) = 0}
Dg◦f = {x ∈ Df : f (x) ∈ Dg }

Example 6. Let f (x) = x2 − x and g : (2, ∞) → R be functions.

1. Find (f ◦ f )(3).

2. Find the implied domain of g ◦ f .

Solution. 1. (f ◦ f )(3) = f (f (3)) = f (6) = 30.

2.
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 − x).
For this to be defined, we need x2 − x ∈ Dg = (2, ∞). Hence,

x2 − x > 2
⇒ x2 − x − 2 > 0
⇒ (x − 2)(x + 1) > 0
⇒ x>2 or x < −1.

Dg◦f = (−∞, −1) ∪ (2, ∞).

Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let I be an interval. A function f (x) is said to be increasing (or strictly increasing) on I, if

f (a) ≤ f (b) (or f (a) < f (b)) for any a < b on I.

Similarly, f (x) is said to be decreasing (or strictly decreasing) on I, if f (a) ≥ f (b) (or
f (a) > f (b)) for any a < b on I.
Chapter 2: Functions 2-8

Even and Odd Functions

Definition 1. If f (−x) = f (x) for any x ∈ Df , then f (x) is called an even function.

If f (−x) = −f (x) for any x ∈ Df , then f (x) is called an odd function.

2.4 More Examples of Functions

Power functions

f (x) = xa
Chapter 2: Functions 2-9

The graphs of some power functions:

Chapter 2: Functions 2-10

2.4.1 Piecewise functions

Definition 2. A piecewise function is defined by more than one formula, with each individual
formula defined on a subset of the domain.

Example 7. f : R → R is defined by
(
1, if x < 0
f (x) =
2x, if x ≥ 0.

Then f (−1) = 1, f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 2.

Remark. Even though this piecewise function is defined using two formulas, it is a single
function whose domain is the entire set of real numbers.

Example 8. f : R → R is defined by

x + 1, if x > 0,


f (x) = 0, if x = 0,

−1,

if x < 0.

is a piecewise function.

Example 9. Graph (
2x + 3, if x < 1,
h(x) =
−2x2 + 11x − 12, if x ≥ 1.
Chapter 2: Functions 2-11

Solution. Note that if −2x2 + 11x − 12 = 0, then

p
−11 ± 112 − 4(−2)(−12)
x=
2(−2)
√
−11 ± 25
=
−4
3
= or 4
2

Also, leading coefficient is −2 < 0, so the parabola opens downwards.

For the graph of y = 2x + 3, it is a straight line with slope = 2, x−intercept = − 23 , and

y−intercept = 3.
Chapter 2: Functions 2-12

Combining the two graphs, we obtain the graph of h(x).

Absolute Value Function

The absolute value function |x| can be expressed as a piecewise function:

(
x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.
Chapter 2: Functions 2-13

Proposition 1. For x, y ∈ R,

|x| ≥ 0√ |x| = | − x|
|x| = x2 |x|2 = x2
x |x|
|xy| = |x||y| =
y |y|
|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|

Proposition 2. Let c > 0. Then

1. |f (x)| < c ⇔ −c < f (x) < c.

2. |f (x)| > c ⇔ f (x) > c or f (x) < −c.

3. Similar statements hold for ≤ and ≥.

Example 10. Solve

1. |2x − 3| ≤ 7
2. |3x + 2| > 4

Solution. 1.
|2x − 3| ≤ 7
⇒ −7 ≤ 2x − 3 ≤ 7
⇒ −4 ≤ 2x ≤ 10
⇒ −2 ≤ x ≤ 5
2.
|3x + 2| > 4
⇒ 3x + 2 > 4 or 3x + 2 < −4
⇒ 3x > 2 or 3x < −6
⇒ x > 23 or x < −2

Example 11. Graph f (x) = |x − 2| + |x + 2|.

Solution. Consider 3 cases:

Case I. If x ≥ 2, then x − 2 ≥ 0, x + 2 ≥ 0.
f (x) = |x − 2| + |x + 2|
= (x − 2) + (x + 2)
= 2x
Chapter 2: Functions 2-14

Case II. If −2 ≤ x < 2, then x − 2 < 0, x + 2 ≥ 0.

f (x) = |x − 2| + |x + 2|
= −(x − 2) + (x + 2)
=4

Case III. If x < −2, then x − 2 < 0, x + 2 < 0.

f (x) = |x − 2| + |x + 2|
= −(x − 2) − (x + 2)
= −2x

Hence, 
2x,

 if x ≥ 2,
f (x) = 4, if − 2 ≤ x < 2,

−2x,

if x < −2.

2.5 Inequality

Example 12. 4x2 + 5 ≥ 12x

Solution.
4x2 − 12x + 5 > 0
(2x − 1)(2x − 5) > 0
∴ x ≤ 12 or x > 52
Chapter 2: Functions 2-15


2x − 1
Example 13. <1
x+1

Wrong Approach!
2x − 1
<1
x+1
Multiply both sides by x + 1 (⊕) ⇒ 2x − 1 < x + 1 ⇒ x < 2.

Why is the above approach wrong? It is because if x + 1 < 0, the step (⊕) reverses the
inequality.

Proposition 3. Let a, b, c ∈ R, a > b,

1. If c > 0, then ca > cb

2. If c > 0, then ca < cb

3. Similar statements hold for a ≥ b

Chapter 2: Functions 2-16

Correct approach 1.

2x − 1
<1
x+1

Note that x + 1 6= 0 ⇒ (x + 1)2 > 0. Multiply both sides by (x + 1)2 .

⇒ (2x − 1)(x + 1) < (x + 1)2

(2x − 1)(x + 1) − (x + 1)2 < 0
(2x − 1 − x − 1)(x + 1) < 0
(x − 2)(x + 1) < 0
−1 < x < 2

Correct approach 2.

2x − 1
<1
x+1
2x − 1
−1 <0
x+1
2x − 1 − (x + 1)
<0
x+1
x−2
<0
x+1

Consider 3 cases:

x < −1 −1 < x < 2 x>2

x−2 − − +
x+1 − + +
x−2
+ − +
x+1

∴ −1 < x < 2.
r
4 3
Example 14. Find the implied domain of f (x) = x− − 2.
x

Solution.
3
Need g(x) = x − −2 ≥0
2
x
x − 3 − 2x
≥0
x
(x − 3)(x + 1)
≥0
x

The points −1, 0, 3 divide (−∞, ∞) into 4 intervals.

Chapter 2: Functions 2-17

x < −1 x = −1 −1 < x < 0 x=0 0<x<3 x=3 x>3

x−3 − − − − − 0 +
x+1 − 0 + + + + +
x − − − 0 + + +
(x−3)(x+1)
x − 0 + undefined − 0 +

∴ −1 ≤ x < 0 or x ≥ 3, Df = [−1, 0) ∪ [3, ∞). 

Remark. One may also determine the sign on each interval by testing with a point on that
interval:

For example,
3
g(−2) = (−2) − − 2 = − 52 < 0 ⇒ x − 3
x −2<0 on (−∞, −1)
−2
3
g − 21 = − 21 − 1 − 2 = 72 > 0 ⇒ x − 3



x −2>0 on (−1, 0)
−2

2.6 Graph of Functions involving Absolute Values

Given

Question: How to get the graph of |f (x)| and f (|x|)?

Chapter 2: Functions 2-18

To obtain the graph of |f (x)| from f (x),

• keep the graph for f (x) ≥ 0

• reflect the graph in the x−axis for f (x) < 0, discarding what was there

• points on the x−axis are invariant.

To obtain the graph of f (|x|) from f (x),

• discard the graph for x < 0

• reflect the graph for x ≥ 0 in the y−axis, keeping what was there

• points on the y−axis are invariant.

Note that f (|x|) is an even function and f (|x|) = f (x) for x ≥ 0.

Exercise 2.6.1. How about the graph of −|f (x)| and f (−|x|)?