SAMPLING
PROCEDURES
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
The probability of being
selected is known, or The purpose is to select
every member of the a group of subjects
Probability wider population has an representative of the
(random sample) equal chance to be larger group of subjects
included. The aim is for from which they are
generalizability and wide selected.
representation.
The probability of being
selected is unknown. The purpose is to select
Non-probability Some members of the subjects who can be
wider population particularly informative
(purposive sample) definitely will be excluded about the research
and others definitely issues.
included.
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Method of sampling in which subjects are selected randomly from a
population in such a way that the researcher knows the probability of
selecting each subject
In a sample of 10 from a population of 100, each subject has a 10%
chance of being included in the sample
Population: a large group of individuals to whom the results of a
study can be generalized.
Sampling frame (i.e., survey population or accessible population)
The group to whom the researcher has access and from which the
actual sample will be drawn
Often the sampling frame and the target population are different
The population could be all fourth graders in Madrid; the sampling
frame is fourth graders in public schools in Madrid. (i.e., excluding
private school students due to their inaccessibility)
The population could be all graduate students at the Universidad
Rey Juan Carlos. The sampling frame is all graduate students in the
College of Education (i.e., excluding graduate students from all other
colleges due to the lack of specific enrollment data)
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
The goal of probability sampling is to select a sample that is
representative of the population from which it is selected.
Sampling error: the difference between the "true" result and the
"observed" result that can be attributed to using samples rather than
populations
In a sample of 99 from a population of 100
Sampling error is minimal.
In a sample of 2 from a population of 100
Sampling error is high.
Sampling bias: the difference between the "observed" and "true"
results that is attributed to the sampling mistakes of the researcher.
Deliberately sampling subjects with certain attributes (e.g.,
positive attitudes, high self-esteem, high level of achievement,
etc.)
Using subjects from different populations and assigning them to
different treatment groups (e.g., males to an experimental
treatment group and females to a traditional treatment group)
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
Types of probability sampling procedures:
RANDOM SAMPLING: a number is assigned to each subject in the population and
a table of random numbers or a computer is used to select subjects randomly from
the population.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING: a number is assigned to each subject in the population,
and every nth member of the population is selected (e.g., 10, 20, 30, 40, etc,; 12,
22, 32, 42, etc.) The starting point for the selection is chosen at random.
STRATIFIED SAMPLING: similar to random sampling with the exception that
subjects are selected randomly from strata, or subgroups of the population (e.g.
strata: gender, age…)
CLUSTER SAMPLING: similar to random sampling except that naturally occurring
groups are randomly selected first, then subjects are randomly selected from the
sampled groups
• Useful when it is impossible to identify all of the individuals in a population
• Typical educational clusters are districts, schools, or classrooms
Example: 27 of the 54 school districts were randomly selected, one secondary school in each
district was randomly selected, and students randomly selected from each school were tested.
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
Steps in selecting probability samples:
Define the target population and sampling frame
Determine the sample size
Select the sampling strategy (i.e., procedure)
Select the sample
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Method of sampling in which the probability of
selecting a subject is unknown.
It is often not possible to use probability
sampling techniques due to access, time,
resource or financial constraints.
It is often desirable to select subjects who can
be particularly informative about the research
issues (e.g., if the researcher is trying to
understand how teachers use manipulatives, it
makes sense to select teachers who do use
these in their classes).
The goal of non-probability sampling is to
identify information-rich participants.
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
Non-probability sampling procedures
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING: selecting a subject or group of
subjects based on their availability to the researcher
• Typical of much educational research given the constraints under which it
is conducted.
• The major concern is the limited generalizability of the results from the
sample to any population.
• Examples: students enrolled in the researcher's classes; fourth-grade
students in two local, private schools to which the researcher has access
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING: selection of particularly
informative or useful subjects
• Typically selects a few information-rich subjects who are studied in-depth
• Also known as purposeful sampling
• Examples: it is reasonable to select "expert" teachers if one is trying to
understand how teachers use effective teaching strategies; it is
reasonable to select physically fit individuals if one is trying to identify
effective exercise behaviors
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
Non-probability sampling procedures
QUOTA SAMPLING: non-random sampling representative
of a larger population
• Used when the researcher cannot use probability sampling procedures
but does want a sample that is somewhat representative of the
population.
• Similar to stratified sampling with the exception that the subjects are
selected non-randomly.
SNOWBALL (chain methods): selecting participants from
recommendations of other participants who have the
characteristics in which they are interested (i.e., network)
• Examples:
• The recommendations of algebra teachers using math manipulatives of
others who are doing the same.
• Teacher's recommendations of student leaders in a school.
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
The use of probability and non-probability
sampling
Quantitative studies:
The desired use of probability sampling due to the
ability to generalize the results to the larger
population.
Frequent use of non-probability techniques -
particularly convenience sampling - due to access,
time, resource, or financial constraints.
Qualitative studies:
Almost exclusive reliance on non-probability
techniques - particularly purposeful sampling.
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
Criteria for evaluating subjects and sampling procedures
Subjects or participants should be described clearly with specific
and detailed information related to demographic and other personal
characteristics.
The population should be clearly defined.
The sampling procedure should be clearly described.
The return rate should be reported and analyzed (e.g., the
proportion of teachers responding to a survey, that is the number
responding compared to the total number of teachers who were sent
the survey).
Less than a 60% return rate requires a comparison of respondents to
non-respondents
The selection of subjects should be free of bias.
Selection procedures should be appropriate for the problem being
investigated.
Adequate sample sizes should be used.
Qualitative studies should have informative and knowledgeable
subjects.
"Educational Research" Mónica Marbán
