UNIT – II D.C.

MOTORS
D.C Motors – Principle of Operation – Back E.M.F. –Torque Equation – Characteristics and
Application of Shunt, Series and Compound Motors-Speed Control of D.C. Motors: Armature
Voltage and Field Flux Control Methods. Three Point Starter-Losses – Constant & Variable
Losses – Calculation of Efficiency - Swinburne’s Test.

DC MOTORS

DC Motors: DC Motor is a Machine which converts Electrical energy into Mechanical energy.
Dc motors are used in steel plants, paper mills, textile mills, cranes, printing presses, Electrical
locomotives etc.

Operating (or) working principle:

It works on principle that ‘When a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field,
it experiences a force and the direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule’.
Fleming’s left hand rule states that “ Stretch out the first finger, second finger and thumb of your
left hand so that they are at right angles to one another. The first finger point the direction of
magnetic field from N-pole to S-pole, second finger points the direction of current and thumb
will indicates the direction rotation of conductor”

Consider a conductor is placed in magnetic field. When a DC supply is connected to

conductor, current flows through it which set up its own flux around the conductor as shown in
fig.(1). Let, the flux from N-pole to S-pole is main flux and the flux around the conductor is flux
due to current carrying conductor. Now the interaction of both main flux and flux due to current
carrying conductor, a force may act on conductor and conductor moves in anti-clock wise
direction as shown in fig. (2).

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Back EMF & its significance:
When a current carrying conductor (Armature winding) is placed in a magnetic field,
torque develops and conductor (Armature) rotates the armature conductors cut the magnetic field
and an emf is induced across the armature conductors. The direction of induced emf is opposite
to the applied voltage. That is why this induced emf is called back emf
(Eb) and the magnitude of the back emf is (Eb) ZN P
= 60 * A
The equivalent circuit of dc motor is as shown in fig. (3). From the
diagram the armature current (Ia) = Vt - Eb . The main significance of the
Ra
back emf is when the back emf is zero, the armature current may be 4to 5
times the normal current. When the back emf is increases, the armature
current is limited to its normal current i.e the back emf acts as safety
valve.

Types of D.C. Motors:

DC Motors are generally classified into three groups according to their field excitation. Those
are
(i) d.c. Shunt Motor (ii) d.c. Series Motor (iii) d.c Compound Motor

DC Shunt Motor:
In a DC Shunt Motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding as shown in fig (5). The shunt field winding has many turns of thin wire having high
resistance. Therefore, a part of armature current flows through shunt field winding and the
remaining current flows through the load.
From the diagram
Shunt field current Ish = Vt / Rsh
Armature current IL = Ia + Ish (or) Ia = IL - Ish
Terminal voltage Vt = Eb + Ia Ra + B. D
Generated EMF Eb = Vt - Ia Ra - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eg Ia
Power delivered to load = Vt IL = Vt (Ia – Ish)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop

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DC Series Motor:
If the field winding is connected in series with armature winding as shown in fig.(6) is
called DC Series Motor. The series field winding has a few turns of thick having low resistance.
From the circuit,
Armature current = Series field current = Load current
i.e
Ia = Ise = IL
Terminal voltage, Vt = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + B. D
= Eb + Ia (Ra + Rse) + B. D
 Generated EMF Eb = Vt - Ia (Ra + Rse) - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eb Ia
In put Power = Vt IL = Vt Ia (since Ia = IL)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop
DC Compound Motor:
In a DC compound motor, there are two sets of field windings on each pole, one is in
series with the armature and the other in parallel with the armature. Based on these field winding
connections, the DC compound moors are classified into
(i) Long shunt compound motor (ii) Short shunt compound motor
Long shunt compound motor:
In a Long Shunt Compound motor, the shunt field winding is in parallel with both series
field and armature winding as shown in fig. (7).
From the diagram
Shunt field current Ish = Vt / Rsh
Armature current IL = Ia + Ish (or) Ia or Ise = IL - Ish
Terminal voltage Vt = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse) + B. D
Generated EMF Eg = Vt - Ia Ra - Ise Rse - B. D
= Vt - Ia (Ra + Rse) - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eb
Ia Input Power = Vt IL = Vt (Ia + Ish)
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance,
Vt = Terminal voltage, IL = Load current
and B.D = Brush contact drop

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Short shunt compound motor:
In a Short Shunt Compound motor, the shunt field winding
is connected in parallel with armature winding only as shown in
fig. (8).
From the diagram
Series field current Ise = IL = Ia + Ish
Armature current Ia = Ise - Ish
Terminal voltage Vt = Eb + Ia Ra + Ise Rse + B. D
Generated EMF Eb = Vt - Ia Ra - Ise Rse - B. D
Power developed in armature = Eb Ia
Input Power = Vt IL
Where Ia = Armature current, Ra = Armature Resistance, Vt = Terminal voltage,
IL = Load current and B.D = Brush contact drop

Armature Torque (Ta) Equation of D.C. Motor:

Torque is defined as ‘turning and twisting movement of force about an axis’.
Mathematically, Torque can be defined as product of force and the radius at which the force is
act i. T = F*r.
Let a pulley with a radius of ‘ r ‘ is rotating with a speed of N rpm, a force
of F newtons is acting on the pulley. Then
Work done by the force = Force * Distance
= F * 2 π r joules
Power developed = Work done / time [time = time required to complete a revolution =
60/N]
= F * 2 π r /(N/60)
= (F * r ) 2 π N/60
= T 2 π N/60 watts
If the torque developed by the motor is Ta ,
The Power developed in armature (Pa ) = Ta 2 π N/60 watts----------------------(1)

But Power developed in armature (Pa ) = Eb Ia------------------------------------------------(2)

From equations (1) & (2), Ta 2 π N/60 = Eb Ia

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D.C. Motor Characteristics:
The performance of a d.c. motor can be judged from its characteristic curves known as
motor
characteristics, following are the three important characteristics of a d.c. motor:
(i) Torque and Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia): It is the curve between armature torque
Ta and armature current Ia of a d.c. motor. It is also known as electrical characteristic of the
motor.
(ii) Speed and armature current characteristic (N/Ia): It is the curve between speed N and
armature current Ia of a d.c. motor. It is very important characteristic in the selection of the
motor for a particular application.
(iii) Speed and torque characteristic (N/Ta): It is the curve between speed N and armature
torque Ta of a d.c. motor. It is also known as mechanical characteristic.
Characteristics of Shunt Motor:
The connections of a d.c. shunt motor is shown in fig.(9). The field current I sh is constant
since the field winding is directly connected to the constant supply voltage V t. Hence, the flux in
a shunt motor is constant (Φ  sh).

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(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic: We know that in a d.c. motor, Ta  Ia. Since the motor is operating
from a constant supply voltage, flux  is constant.
 Ta  Ia
Hence Ta/Ia characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. (10). It
is clear from the curve that a very large current is required to start a heavy load. Therefore, a
shunt motor should not be started on heavy load.

(ii) N/Ia Characteristic: The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by N Eb

 . The flux ( in a

shunt motor are almost constant under normal conditions. Therefore, speed of a shunt motor
will remain constant as the armature current varies. But practically when load is increased,
load current IL and armature current Ia also increased (since Ia = IL+ Ish). Therefore the back
emf Eb (= Vt IaRa) decrease due to the armature resistance drop and results in slightly
decrease in the speed of the motor.

(iii) N/Ta Characteristic: The curve is obtained by plotting the values of N and T a for various
armature currents. It may be seen that speed falls as the load torque increases as shown in
N/Ta characteristics.

Characteristics of Series Motor:

The connections of a d.c. series motor is shown in fig.(11). From the circuit I L = Ise = Ia. If the
load on the motor increases, the armature current also increases. Hence, the flux in a series motor
increases with the increase in armature current (Φ  f) and vice-versa.

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(i) Ta/Ia Characteristic:
We know that: Ta   Ia
Before saturation,   Ia so that Ta  I2a and after magnetic saturation,  is constant so that
Ta  Ia. Therefore upto saturation, Torque Vs Armature current curve is a parabola and after
saturation, torque is directly proportional to the armature current. Therefore, Ta/Ia curve after
saturation is a straight line as shown in fig.(12).

(ii) N/Ia Characteristic: E

b
The speed N of a. d.c. motor is given by N  . For constant back emf, speed

1 1
N but the flux (Φ)  field current (Ise = Ia). Therefore the speed N 
. Thus,
 Ia
the Speed (N) Vs armature current (Ia) curve is hyperbolic as shown in Fig. (13).
(iii) N/Ta Characteristic: The speed (N) Vs Torque (Ta) characteristic of a series motor
is shown in
Fig. (14)

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 Now the speed of the motor N  Eb i.e N  Vt – Ia (Ra + R ) . Due to voltage drop in
resistance (R), the back e.m.f. (Eb) is decreased. Since N  Eb, the speed of the motor is reduced
from the normal speed. This method gives the speeds always less than the normal speeds.
The main drawbacks of this method are
(i) A large amount of power is wasted in the resistance since it carries full armature current.
(ii) The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced due to large amount of power is wasted
in the resistance (R).
(iii) This method results in poor speed regulation.
Flux or Field Control Method: E
b
We know that the speed of a d.c. motor is N 

from the above equation it is clear that, by varying the flux(Φ), the speed of the motor can be
varied hence it is called flux or field control method. The following figure shows the
arrangement for flux control method. In this method an additional resistance of R ohms is
connected in series with the shunt field winding.

By increasing the additional resistance, the flux (Φ) decreases, this results in increase in speed
from the normal speed. This method always gives the speeds above the normal speed.

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Advantages
(i) This is an easy and convenient method.
(ii) It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in additional resistance (R)
due toShunt field current Ish.
The main drawback of this method is only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained
since the total field circuit resistance cannot be reduced below the shunt field resistance (R sh).
Need Of 3 point Starter :
A 3 point starter in simple words is a device that helps in the starting and running of a
shunt wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor. Why these types of DC motors require
the assistance of the starter means the only explanation is given by the presence of back emf Eb,
which plays a critical role in the operation of the motor. The back emf, develops as the motor
armature starts to rotate in presence of the magnetic field, by generating action and counters the
supply voltage. This also essentially means, that the back emf at the starting is zero, and
develops gradually as the motor gathers speed.
The general motor emf equation V = Eb + Ia.Ra,
at starting is modified to E = Ia.Ra as at starting Eb = 0.
Then Armature current Ia=V/Ra

Thus we can well understand from the above equation that the electric current will be
dangerously high at starting (as armature resistance Ra is small) .Then, there will be high amount
of power loss in the form of heating.At that time,the mechine may also be burned because of
heat. Hence it is important that we make use of a device like the 3 point starter to limit the
starting current to an allowable safe value by providing high resistance at starting.
3 point starter:
It consists of a graded resistance R to limit the starting current. The handle H is kept in
the OFF position by a spring S. The handle H is manually moved, for starting the motor and
when it makes contact with resistance stud one the motor is said to be in the START position. In
this initial start position, the field winding of the motor receives the full supply voltage, and the
armature current is limited to a certain safe value by the resistance (R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4).

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Working of 3 Point Starter:

The starter handle is now moved from stud to stud, and this builds up the speed of the motor until
it reaches the RUN position. The Studs are the contact point of the resistance. In the RUN
position, three main points are considered. They are as follows.
1. The motor attains the full speed.
2. The supply is direct across both the windings of the
motor. 3.The resistance R is completely cut out.
The handle H is held in RUN position by an electromagnet energised by a no volt
trip coil (NVC). This no volt trip coil is connected in series with the field winding of the motor.
In the event of switching OFF, or when the supply voltage falls below a predetermined value, or
the complete failure of supply while the motor is running, NVC is energised. The handle is
released and pulled back to the OFF position by the action of the spring. The current to the
motor is cut off, and the motor is not restarted without a resistance R in the armature circuit. The
no voltage coil also provides protection against an open circuit in the field windings.
The No Voltage Coil (NVC) is called NO-VOLT or UNDERVOLTAGE protection of
the motor. Without this protection, the supply voltage might be restored with the handle in the
RUN position. The full line voltage is directly applied to the armature. As a result, a large
amount of current is generated.
The other protective device incorporated in the starter is the overload protection.
The Over Load Trip Coil (OLC) and the No Voltage Coil (NVC) provide the overload
protection of the motor. The overload coil is made up of a small electromagnet, which carries the
armature current. The magnetic pull of the Overload trip coil is insufficient to attract the strip P,
for the normal values of the armature current.

Drawbacks of a Three Point Starter:

The 3 point starter suffers from a serious drawback for motors with large variation of speed by
adjustment of the field rheostat. To increase the speed of the motor field resistance can be
increased. Therefore current through shunt field is reduced. Field current becomes very low
which results in holding electromagnet too weak to overcome the force exerted by the spring.
The holding magnet may release the arm of the starter during the normal operation of the motor
and thus disconnect the motor from the line. This is not desirable. A four point starter is thus
used.
Losses & Effiency of a D.C. Machine:
Losses of a D.C. Machine:
The losses in a d.c. machine (generator or motor) may be divided into three classes. Those are
(i) copper losses (ii) iron or core losses and (iii) mechanical losses.
Copper losses: The copper losses are directly proportional to square of the current passing
through the winding. Copper losses due to currents in the various windings of the machine are
(i)
Armature copper loss = Ia2 Ra ; Where Ia is the armature current and Ra armature resistance.
(ii)
Shunt field copper loss = Ish2 Rsh ; Where Ish is the shunt field current and Rsh shunt field
resistance.

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(iii) 2
Series field copper loss = I R ; Where I is the series field current & R series field
se se se se

resistance.
Iron or Core losses: These losses occur in the armature of a d.c. machine and are due to the
rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the poles. They are of two types (i) Hysteresis loss
(ii) Eddy current loss.
Hysteresis loss:
The Hysteresis loss, Ph α η Bm 1.6 f V watts
Where Bm = Maximum flux density in armature, f = Frequency, V = Volume of armature in
m3 η = Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient
In order to reduce this loss in a d.c. machine, armature core is made of silicon steel
material, because the silicon steel material has a low value of Steinmetz hysteresis co-efficient.
Eddy current loss:
The Eddy current loss, Pe α Ke Bm2 f2 t2 V watts
Where Ke = Constant , Bm = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2, f = Frequency t = Thickness of
lamination in mts and V = Volume of core in m3
Eddy current losses can be reduced by laminating the armature core and pole core.
Mechanical losses:
These losses are due to friction and windage effects. Mechanical losses are classified into
two classes, those are
(i) Friction loss (These losses are due to friction at bearings and brushes)
(ii) Windage loss (These losses are due air friction of rotating armature).
These losses depend upon the speed of the machine. But for a given speed, they are practically
constant.
Since the iron and mechanical losses are independent of load, these losses are called as
constant losses. But the copper loss depends on load or load current, so the copper losses are
called as variable losses. The constant losses and Shunt field copper losses are combinely called
as stray losses. Therefore the total losses are the sum of constant losses and variable losses.
Effiency of a D.C. Machine:
The power stage diagram of a DC Machine is as shown in figure(9).

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for DC Generator:
The efficiency of a d.c. generator is not constant but varies with load. Consider a shunt generator
delivering a load current IL at a terminal voltage Vt .
Generator output = Vt IL
Generator input = Output + Losses
= Vt IL + Variable losses + Constant losses
= Vt IL + Ia2 Ra + Pi
= Vt IL + (IL + Ish) 2 Ra + Pi (Ia = IL + Ish)
Output power
Generator Effiency (ηgen) = VtIL
*100 2
*100
Input power  VtIL + (IL + Ish) Ra + Pi
for DC Motor:
The efficiency of a d.c. motor is not constant but varies with load. Consider a shunt motor
delivering a load current IL at a terminal voltage Vt .
Motor Input = Vt IL
Motor Output = Input - Losses
= Vt IL - Variable losses - Constant losses
= Vt IL - Ia2 Ra - Pi
= Vt IL - (IL - Ish) 2 Ra - Pi ( Ia = IL - Ish)
Output power
Motor Effiency (ηmotor) = Input power *100  VtIL
V 2 *100
t IL - (IL - Ish) Ra - Pi

Swinburne’s test on DC machines:

Swinburne’s test is the simplest indirect method of testing dc machines. In this method, the dc
machine (generator or motor) is run as a motor at no-load and losses of the machine are
determined. Once the losses of the machine are known, its efficiency at any desired load can be
determined in advance.
It may be noted that this method is applicable to those machines in which flux is practically
constant at all loads e.g., shunt and compound machines.
Steps to find the Efficiency

Let us see how the efficiency of a dc shunt machine (generator or motor) is determined by this
method. The test insists of two steps:

1. Determination of hot resistances of windings

2. Determination of constant losses

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Determination of hot resistances of windings

The armature resistance and shunt field resistance are measured at room temperature (say, at
15°C) using voltmeter ammeter method (battery, voltmeter and ammeter). Since these resistances
are measured when the machine is cold, they must be converted to values corresponding to the
temperature at which the machine would work on full-load.

Generally, these values are measured for a temperature rise of 40°C above the room temperature.
From the data so obtained, different losses are computed and efficiency is determined.
Determination of constant losses
The machine is run as a motor on no-load with supply voltage adjusted to the rated voltage
i.e. voltage stamped on the nameplate. The speed of the motor is adjusted to the rated speed with
the help of field regulator R as shown in figure .
Let V = Supply voltage
Io = No-load current read by ammeter A1
Ish =Shunt-field current read by ammeter A2.

∴ No-load armature current, Ia0 = Io -

Ish No-load input power to motor = V
Io
No-load power input to armature = V Iao = V(Io - Ish)

Since the output of the motor is zero, the no-load input power to the armature supplies

(a) iron losses in the core

(b) friction loss

(c) windage loss (d) armature Cu loss [ I 2R or (I - I )2R

ao a o sh a.

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Constant losses, Wc = Input to motor - Armature Cu loss

Wc = V Io - (Io - Ish)2Ra

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Since constant losses are known, the efficiency of the machine at any other load can be
determined. Suppose it is desired to determine the efficiency of the machine at load current I.
Then,
Armature current, Ia = I - Ish ... if the machine is motoring

= I + Ish ... if the machine is generating

Efficiency when running as a motor

Input power to motor = VI

Armature Cu loss = Ia2Ra = (I - Ish)2Ra
Constant losses = Wc found above

∴ Motor efficiency, ηm = (Input - Losses)/Input = [VI - (I - Ish)2Ra + Wc]/VI

Total losses = (I - Ish)2Ra + Wc

Efficiency when running as a generator

Output of generator= VI
Armature Cu loss = Ia2Ra = (I + Ish)2Ra
Constant losses = Wc found above

∴ Motor efficiency, ηm = (Input - Losses)/Input = VI/[VI + (I + Ish)2Ra + Wc]

Total losses = (I + Ish)2Ra + Wc

Advantages of Swinburne’s test

The following are the advantages of swinburne's test

 The power required to carry out the test is small because it is a no-load test. Therefore, this
method is quite economical.
 The efficiency can be determined at any load because constant losses are known.
 This test is very convenient.

Disadvantages of Swinburne's test

The disadvantages of swinburne's test are given below

 It does not take into account the stray load losses that occur when the machine is loaded.
 This test does not enable us to check the performance of the machine on full-load. For
example, it does not indicate whether commutation on full load is satisfactory and whether
the temperature rise is within the specified limits.

 This test does not give quite accurate efficiency of the machine. It is because iron losses
under actual load are greater than those measured. This is mainly due to armature reaction
distorting the field.

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Applications of DC Motors:

Type of motor Characterstics Applications

Shunt Approximately constant speed  For driving constant

adjustable speed speed line shafting
Medium starting torque  Latches
 Centrifugal pumps
 Machine tools
 Blowers and fans
 Reciprocating pumps
Series Variable speed For traction work i.e,
Adjustable variying speed  Electric locomotives
High starting torque  Trolley,cars etc
Cranes and hoists
Conveyors
Cummulative Variable speed For intermediate high torque
Compound Adjustable varying speed loads
High starting torque For shears and punches
Elevators
Conveyors
Heavy planers
Rolling mills
Ice machines
Printing presses
Air compressors

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