Physics

Chapter 1: Introduction to Physics

❝Physics is not just about falling apples. It’s the blueprint of how the universe functions, from
subatomic particles to galaxies.❞

Definition: Physics is the fundamental science that studies matter, energy, and their interactions through
space and time.

Why Study Physics?

• To decode the universe's secrets

• Backbone of all engineering & tech
• Builds critical thinking and logic

Branches of Physics:

• Mechanics (motion, force, energy)

• Thermodynamics (heat and work)
• Electromagnetism (electricity & magnetism)
• Optics (light)
• Quantum Physics (atoms & subatomic particles)

Real-World Relevance:

Physics explains why the sky is blue, how engines work, how electricity flows in your home, and even how
time behaves at the speed of light. It blends theory with application, and every concept you learn is
connected to something you use daily.

Chapter 2: Physical Quantities & Measurement

Physical Quantity: Any property that can be measured and expressed with a number and a unit.

SI Units (Système International):

• Length → metre (m)

• Mass → kilogram (kg)
• Time → second (s)
• Temperature → kelvin (K)

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Instruments of Measurement:

• Ruler/Tape – for length

• Stopwatch – for time
• Thermometer – for temperature
• Spring/beam balance – for mass

Concepts:

• Accuracy vs Precision
• Least Count – smallest measurable value of an instrument
• Unit Conversion – e.g., 1 km = 1000 m

From NCERT:

Measurement is a comparison of an unknown quantity with a known fixed quantity of the

same kind. This known fixed quantity is called a unit.

Parallax error: Apparent shift in position due to change in observer’s viewpoint, especially in scale
readings.

Chapter 3: Motion
Motion = Change in position with respect to time.

Types of Motion:

• Translational (Linear): straight path

• Circular: around a fixed axis (e.g., fan blade)
• Oscillatory: to and fro (e.g., pendulum)

Kinematic Basics:

• Speed = Distance / Time

• Velocity: Speed with direction
• Acceleration: Change in velocity / Time

Graphical Representation:

• Distance–Time Graph: Slope = Speed

• Velocity–Time Graph: Area under curve = Distance

Uniform vs Non-uniform Motion:

• Uniform: constant speed

• Non-uniform: varying speed or direction

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Equations of Motion: 1. v = u + at 2. s = ut + ½ at² 3. v² = u² + 2as

Where: - u = initial velocity - v = final velocity - a = acceleration - s = displacement - t = time

Chapter 4: Force
Force is a vector quantity — it has both magnitude and direction.

Types of Forces:

• Contact Forces: muscular, frictional, applied

• Non-Contact Forces: gravitational, magnetic, electrostatic

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

1. Law of Inertia – An object remains in its state unless a net external force acts on it.
2. F = m × a – Force is directly proportional to mass and acceleration.
3. Action-Reaction – Forces come in equal and opposite pairs.

Mass vs Weight: - Mass: amount of matter (constant) - Weight = mass × gravity (varies with location)

Free-body Diagrams (FBD): Representation of all forces acting on a body using arrows.

Chapter 5: Pressure
Pressure = Force / Area

• SI Unit: Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m²

Key Concepts:

• More area → Less pressure

• Less area → More pressure

Pressure in Liquids:

• Increases with depth

• Acts equally in all directions

Pressure in Gases:

• Exerted on walls of container

• Basis of air pressure, atmospheric pressure

Barometer: Instrument to measure atmospheric pressure.

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Applications: - Hydraulics (Pascal’s law) - Vaccum sealing, tires, medical syringes

Chapter 6: Friction
Friction opposes motion between two surfaces in contact.

Types of Friction:

• Static – before motion starts

• Sliding – during motion
• Rolling – wheel-based motion

Factors affecting Friction:

• Nature of surfaces
• Normal force

Useful Friction: Walking, writing, gripping Harmful Friction: Engine wear, energy loss

Ways to Reduce Friction: - Polishing - Lubrication - Streamlining - Ball bearings

Chapter 7: Work, Energy & Power

Work:

W = F × d (when displacement ≠ 0 and force is applied)

Conditions for Work:

• Object must move

• Displacement must have a component in direction of force

Energy:

• Capacity to do work
• Forms: mechanical, thermal, chemical, sound, electrical, nuclear

Kinetic Energy = ½ mv² Potential Energy = mgh

Power:

Power = Work / Time

• 1 Watt = 1 Joule / second

• Larger unit: kilowatt (kW)

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Commercial Unit of Energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)

NCERT Tip:

One kilowatt-hour = 3.6 × 10⁶ joules

Chapter 8: Sound
Sound = Mechanical wave created by vibrating objects.

Medium Required:

• Cannot travel in vacuum

• Faster in solids, slower in gases

Key Terms:

• Frequency (Hz) – number of vibrations per second

• Amplitude – maximum displacement
• Pitch – perception of frequency
• Loudness – related to amplitude

Speed of Sound in Air ≈ 343 m/s at 25°C

Echo:

• Reflected sound heard after 0.1 sec

• Used in sonar, ultrasound imaging

Chapter 9: Light
Light = Form of electromagnetic radiation visible to the eye.

Reflection:

• Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

• Laws of reflection apply to smooth (plane) mirrors

Refraction:

• Bending of light when passing between media

• Denser medium → slows down → bends toward normal

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Real-World Concepts:

• Prism dispersion
• Rainbow formation
• Lenses in glasses, cameras

Convex Lens: Converges light Concave Lens: Diverges light

Chapter 10: Heat

Heat = Transfer of thermal energy from hot to cold object

Modes of Transfer:

1. Conduction – solids
2. Convection – liquids & gases
3. Radiation – through vacuum

Thermal Expansion: Solids expand on heating (bimetallic strips)

Specific Heat Capacity: Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg substance by 1°C

Chapter 11: Magnetism

What is a Magnet?

Substance that produces magnetic field and attracts iron, cobalt, nickel

Magnetic Field:

Space around magnet where magnetic force is felt

Field Lines: Point from North to South outside the magnet

Earth as a Magnet:

• Geographic vs Magnetic poles

• Compass aligns to Earth’s magnetic field

Electromagnetism: Current in wire produces magnetic field (basis for motors)

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Chapter 12: Electricity (Basics)

Electric Current:

Flow of electrons in a conductor

Current (I) = Charge (Q) / Time (t) Unit: Ampere (A)

Ohm’s Law:

V = IR (Voltage = Current × Resistance)

Resistance: Opposition to flow of current

Circuit Components:

• Cell/battery
• Wire
• Bulb
• Resistor
• Switch

Series vs Parallel Circuits: - Series: Same current, voltage divided - Parallel: Same voltage, current divided

NCERT Reminder: Fuses are used to protect electrical appliances from overload.

You’ve now expanded your foundation in physics with added clarity, deeper concepts, and alignment with
standard syllabi. Want a chapter-by-chapter quiz set or real-world experiments next?