CHAPTER-5

SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

Adama Science and Technology University
Department of Power and Control Engineering

Introduction to Mechatronics
EPCE-4306
 INTRODUCTION
• A Sensor is a device that measures physical input from its
environment and convert it into data that can be interpreted by
either a human or a machine.
• Physical input/quantity include temperature, pressure, etc…
• Transducers is a device that converts a signal from one physical
form to a corresponding signal having a different physical form.
• Physical form can be mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric,
optical, chemical etc…
• Sensors and Actuators are types of transducers. A Sensor is an
input transducer and an Actuator is an output transducer.
SENSORS Vs ACTUATORS
Cont.
NEED FOR A SENSOR ?

• For any system to interact with their

environment , Sensors and Actuators are needed.

• Automation can’t be imagined without Sensors.

• Sensors are embedded in our bodies,

automobiles, phones, cars, airplanes, radios ,
industrial plants and many other applications.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEASURANDS
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
1. Based on the physical effect employed: as
resistive,
inductive,
Capacitive sensors
2. Based on the physical quantity they convert: as
displacement sensor,
temperature sensor,
speed sensor,
Touch and tactile sensors
Acceleration/vibration sensors
pressure sensor
Force sensors
Optical sensor etc…
Cont.
1. Cont.
_
2. _
3. Based on the source of energy they used to provide an output:
as
• Active sensors: Active sensors are those which don’t consume
rather provide electrical energy corresponding to input.
Thermoelectric(Thermocouple) V(T)temp
Solar cells (photo voltaic cells) I(E)illumination
Piezo electric crystals I(F), I(P) or V(P)
• Passive sensors: are those sensors which consume or require
electrical energy to provide an output.
Example:∆R, ∆L, ∆C etc. so far discussed sensors
4. Based on output
Analog Sensors: produces continuous output signal with respect
to quantity being measured. Example-Temperature and light
sensors.
Digital sensors: work with discrete or digital data. E.g Digital
Encoder, IR Sensors.
 VARIETIES OF SENSORS

Acoustic Sensors Automotive Sensors Proximity Sensor Optical Sensor

Geophone Air flow meter Infrared sensor Photodiode
Hydrophone Speedometer Ultrasonic sensor Infrared sensor
Microphone Hall-Effect Sensor Camera
Air- Fuel Ratio meter

Electric Current Sensors Navigation Instruments

Hall Probe LIDAR
Magnetometer Gyroscope Rotary
Current sensor Encoder Odometer
Voltage Detector Tachometer
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SENSOR…

Sensors are characterized depending on the value of some

parameters. These characteristics include:

1. Static characteristics: The properties of the system after all

transient effects have settled to their final or steady state.
These include: Range, Span, Accuracy, precision,
sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, resolution,
resproducibility, repeatability, repeatability, response
time etc.
 Cont.

2. Dynamic characteristics: The properties of the system based on

transient response to an input.
• The Sensor response to a variable input give rise to dynamic
characteristics.
• The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of
energy storing elements.
• Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the
response of the sensor to a family of variable input
waveforms: are characterized depending on the value of some
parameters. These characteristics include:
• Impulse
• Step
• Ramp
• sinusoidal
Which of the following characterstics determines the
performance, economy and applicability of the sensor?
• Cost
• Size
?
• Weight
• Interfacing
• Resolution
• Sensitivity
• Linearity
• Range
• Response time
• Frequency response
• Reliability
• Accuracy
• Repeatability
 CALIBRATION OF SENSORS

• Most sensors are not ideal and are often affected by

surrounding noise. For a color sensor, this could be
ambient light, and specular distributions.
• If a sensor is known to be accurate, it can be used to make
comparison with reference readings. This is usually done with
respect to certain standard physical references, such as for a
rangefinder we may use a ruler for calibration.

• Each sensor has a ‘characteristic curve’ that defines the sensor’s

response to an input. The calibration process maps the
sensor’s response to an ideal linear response
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF SENSOR

Suppose the output of a sensor for some physical quantity x(t) is given by f(x(t)):

• Linear Model
, where

• Affine Model
, where ,

Often, ‘a’ is called the proportionality constant, which gives an idea of the
sensitivity of the sensor, and ‘b’ denotes the bias.

Note: The sensitivity of a sensor is ratio of output value to measured quantity.

 SENSOR’S OPERATING RANGE

If the operating range of a sensor is (L, H),

To get an idea of how precise the measurements of a sensor can be, one defines its
precision ‘p’ as the smallest difference between two distinguishable sensor readings
of the physical quantity.
 WHAT MAKES A GOOD SENSOR?

• Precision: An ideal sensor produces

same output for same input. It is affected
by noise and hysteresis.

• Resolution: The ability to detect small

changes in the measuring parameter

• Accuracy: ‘It is the

combination of precision, resolution
and calibration.’
 CURRENT SENSORS
• It has an integrated coil.
• By placing the coil around a current-carrying conductor,
there in an induced voltage, which is proportional to the
current in the system. By using various amplifiers such as
shunt and operational amplifiers, as well as a user-
friendly interface, it is then easy to detect and measure the
current in the system.
• There are two primary types of current sensors, direct and
indirect sensors.
• The direct sensor applies Ohms Law and Halls Effect.
 Cont.
• Direct sensors are used for low currents (<100A).
• For higher currents (100-1000A), the indirect method is used.
• It works on Ampere’s and Faraday’s Laws by measuring the
magnetic field that surrounds a current carrying conductor.
• Traditionally, current sensors were used for circuit protection and
control. However, the values are presently used to monitor and
enhance performance of different electronics and electrical
equipment.
• The various applications include the following:
• Linear and switch-mode power supplies monitoring
• Motor control
• Overload protection
• Over current protection
• Ground fault detection, amongst others
 VOLTAGE SENSORS
• The primary function of voltage sensors is to detect and
measure AC and/or DC voltage levels.
• When the presence of voltage is detected, the sensors provide an
output in the form of analogue voltage signals, current levels,
frequency and modulated frequency outputs or audible sounds.
• A typical sensor features a needle or pointer, while the digital
versions feature an alphanumeric interface.
• The sensors in use include handheld voltage sensors, DIN rail
mounted sensors, and PCB mounted voltage sensors.
There are various applications associated with voltage sensors.
• Power measurement: this is usually done on industrial equipment to measure
efficiency
• DC voltage measurement
• Power quality measurement
• Earth fault measurement
• Switchgear optimization
 ACTUATORS

• Hardware devices that convert a controller command signal

into a change in a physical parameter. The change is usually
mechanical (e.g., position or velocity)
• An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one type
of physical quantity into some alternative form
• An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command
signal, so an amplifier may be required to provide sufficient
power to drive the actuator.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTUATORS
• Depending upon the intended application the major
required actuator characteristics are:
• Actuator weight:
• Power-to-weight ratio;
• Operating pressure;
• Stiffness and compliance;
• Reduction gear.
 SELECTION OF ACTUATORS

The selection of particular actuator depends on

the following criteria:
✓Accuracy and resolution
✓Power required for actuation
✓power to weight ratio
✓Cost of actuation device
✓Dynamic response
✓Maintenance cost
 TYPES OF ACTUATORS
1. Electromechanical actuators
• Electric motors (DC servomotors, AC motors, Stepper
motors)
• Solenoids
2. Hydraulic actuators: Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the
controller command signal
3. Pneumatic actuators: Use compressed air as the driving
force
4. Active material based actuators
• Shape memory metal(alloy) actuators
• Magnetostrictive actuators
 ELECTRO-MECHANICAL ACTUATION SYSTEMS
• Characteristics of Electromagnetic Actuators
– Good for all small size application (robot)
– Better control, good for high precision robots
– Higher compliance than hydraulic
– Reduction gears used reduce inertia on the motor
– Does not leak, good for clean room
– Reliable
– Can be spark-free. good for explosive environment
– Low stiffness
– Needs reduction gears, increase backlash, cost weight...
– low maintenance
– Motor needs braking device
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PNEUMATIC ACTUATORS
• Reliable components • Common Applications
• No leaks and spark – Push-pull
• Inexpensive and simple – Pick-n-place
• Low pressure compared to – Lifting
hydraulics
– Holding
• Good for on-off applications or
pick and place – Air-driven hand tools
• Compliant system • Pneumatic System Components
• Noisy system – Air Tank
• Difficult to control linear position – Air compressor
• Deform under load constantly – Electric motor
• Very low stiffness, inaccurate – Air conditioners and Control
response valves
• Lowest power to weight ratio – Actuator
– Air hoses
 Cont.
• Advantage of Pneumatic System
– Low inertia effect of pneumatic components due to low density of air.
– Pneumatic Systems are light in weight.
– Operating elements are cheaper and easy to operate,
– Power losses are less due to low viscosity of air,
– High output to weight ratio.
• Disadvantages of Pneumatic
– Suitable only for low pressure and hence low force applications,
– Compressed air actuators are economical up to 50 kN only.
– Generation of the compressed air is expensive compared to electricity,
– Exhaust air noise is unpleasant and silence has to be used.
– Rigidity of the system is poor,
– Weight to pressure ratio is large,
– Less precise. It is not possible to achieve uniform speed due to
compressibility of air,
– Pneumatic systems is vulnerable to dirt and contamination
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
 HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
❖ Common Applications
❖ Characteristics • Hydraulic car Lifts and Fluid
• Good for large robots and heavy Power
payload
• Hydraulic Braking
• Highest power to weight ratio
• Heavy duty auto-motives and
• Stiff system, high accuracy, better construction machineries
response
❖ Components of Hydraulic
• No reduction gear needed Actuators
• Can work in wide range of speeds • Tank/Reservoir
without difficulty
• Pump
• Maintains position without any damage
• Hydraulic accumulators
• Viscosity of oil varies with temperature.
• Hydraulic motor:
• Noisy and maintenance expensive • Piping and Hoses
• Very susceptible to dirt
• Low compliance
• High torque, high pressure and large
inertia on the actuator
 Cont.

Advantage of Hydraulic Disadvantage of Hydraulic

Actuators Actuators
• Efficient transmitter of • Hydraulic fluids are
power messy
• High accuracy • Difficult to totally get rid
• Large weight to power of leaks in a hydraulic
ratio system
• Provides a constant force, • Hydraulic lines mostly
regardless of changes in burst and they can cause
speed serious injuries
• Simple, safe and
economical
• Easy to maintain
 STEPPER MOTOR
Definition:
• A stepper motor is a digital actuator that moves in discrete steps. It does not
require position feedback and relies on the control pulses for precise
movement.

Working Principle:
• Moves in fixed increments (steps) based on input pulses.
• Each step corresponds to a fixed angular rotation.
• Can be controlled in open-loop or closed-loop configurations.

Features:
• Precise control over position and speed.
• No position feedback required.
• Commonly used in 3D printers, CNC machines, and positioning systems.
 SERVO MOTOR

Definition:
• A servo motor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of
angular position. It consists of a motor coupled with a sensor for
position feedback.

Working Principle:
• Receives control signal (typically PWM).
• Utilizes feedback (potentiometer or encoder) for position control.
• Adjusts shaft position based on input to maintain desired position.

Features:
• High precision and accuracy.
• Fast response time.
• Widely used in robotics, CNC machines, and industrial automation.
 SOLENOID
Definition:
A solenoid is an electromechanical device that converts electrical
energy into linear motion. It typically operates as an on/off switch
for linear movement.

Working Principle:
• Energized coil generates a magnetic field.
• Magnetic field pulls a plunger or rod, creating linear motion.
• De-energizing the coil returns the plunger to its original
position.

Features:
• Simple and compact design.
• Fast response time.
• Applications include valves, locks, and robotic grippers.
 SUMMARY
Aspect Servo Motor Stepper Motor Solenoid
Control Closed-loop Open-loop On/off
Precision High High Moderate
Feedback Yes No No
Continuous
Yes No (Discrete) No (Linear Only)
Motion
Complexity High Medium Low
Applications Robotics, CNC 3D Printers, CNC Valves, Locks

Actuator Advantages Disadvantages

Precise control, high Higher cost, complexity of

Servo Motor
torque feedback

Precise positioning, simple Lower efficiency at high

Stepper Motor
control speeds
Fast response, simple Limited stroke length,
Solenoid
construction binary operation
STEPPER MOTOR