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L4

Heat engine

and introduction to the

2nd law OF
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THERMODYNAMICS
Reversible process:
A reversible process is a process, performed in such a way that on reverse it, both the
system and surrounding may be restored to the initial condition, without producing any
change in the reverse.

Condition for reversible process: - In order that a process may be reversible, the
following conditions must be satisfied.

(i) The process to be reversible, it should be carried out very slowly so that the system
remains in thermodynamic equilibrium at each state of the process, i.e. the process must
be quasistatic one.

ii)Dissipative forces such as friction must be completely absent.

iii) There should not be any loss of energy due to conduction, convection or radiation
during the process.

Irreversible process:-
Any process which is not reversible exactly is an
irreversible process. All practical and natural process
such as conduction of heat, electrical heating, free
expansion of a gas are irreversible process.

Heat Engines: -
Heat engine in its cyclic operation absorbs heat at a
higher temperature, converts parts of it’s into
mechanical work and reject the remaining heat at a
low temperature.
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Efficiency: - The efficiency 𝜂 of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of mechanical work
done by the engine in one cycle, to the heat absorbed from the higher temperature
sources.

Therefore,
𝑊 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝜂= = = 1 −
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄1

Carnot heat engine:-

Sadi Carnot gave an ideal heat engine that works reversibly and have maximum efficiency
.The essential parts of Carnot engine are as follows ,

i) Cylinder having perfectly non conducting walls, a perfectly conducting base fitted
with a friction-less piston.
ii)A source ( heat reservoir ) at some constant temperature T1, from which heat is
absorbed.
iii)A sink (heat reservoir) at some lower temperature T2 to which heat is rejected
iv) Working substance (an ideal) gas and
v) A perfectly insulated pad for the cylinder

https003A//www.youtube.com/watch?v=s3N_QJVucF8

Carnot Cycle 1 -
YouTube - Google Chrome 2023-10-10 09-49-30.mp4

Operation:- This hypothetical engine operation consists of four stages, is shown below
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1.Reversible Isothermal
expansion (AB) :-

The ideal gas undergoes

a reversible thermal
expansion represented
by isotherm 𝐴𝐵 at
constant temperature
𝑇1 . The gas expands from volume𝑉1 to 𝑉2 ;heat absorbed from the
source is𝑄 and work done is𝑊1 .
𝑉2
Work done in this process𝑊1 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉1

Since this isothermal process internal energy remains constant, the work done is equal to
heat absorbed 𝑄1 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵

2. Reversible adiabatic expansion(BC) : - In this step the ideal gas undergoes

adiabatic expansion from volume 𝑉2 to 𝑉3 , resulting a drop of
temperature from T1 to T2.

Work done in this step,𝑊𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝑉 ( 𝑇1 – 𝑇2 )

………………………(ii)

No heat is exchanged.∆𝑄 = 0
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3. Reversible isothermal compression (CD):- In this steps the ideal gas is
compressed isothermally from volume V3 to V4,resulting release of heat 𝑄2 at temperature
𝑇2 .

Work done in this step,

𝑉4
𝑊𝐶𝐷 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑛
𝑉3
𝑉3
= −𝑛𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑛
𝑉4

Since in this isothermal process internal energy remains constant,

the work done is equal to heat rejected
𝑉3
𝑄2 = 𝑊𝐶𝐷 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑛
𝑉4

Clearly the negative sign signifies the rejection of heat from the
system.

4. Reversible adiabatic Compression(DA):- In this step the ideal gas is further

compressed adiabatically till the system reach the initial state.

Work done in this step,𝑊𝐷𝐴 =

𝐶𝑉 ( 𝑇2 – 𝑇1 )………………..(iv)

No heat is exchanged.

Efficiency:- Total work done throughout the process

𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶𝐷 + 𝑊𝐷𝐴
𝑉2 𝑉3
𝑊 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 − 𝑛𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉4

Hence efficiency,

Therefore Efficiency
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𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑊 𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 2 − 𝑛𝑅𝑇2 𝑙𝑛 3 𝑇2 𝑙𝑛 4
𝑉3
𝑉1 𝑉4
𝜂= = =1−
𝑄1 𝑉2 𝑉
𝑛𝑅𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 𝑇1 𝑙𝑛 2
𝑉1 𝑉1

Considering the adiabatic BC, where 𝑇1 𝑉2 𝛾−1 = 𝑇2 𝑉3 𝛾−1 ………………..(v)

and the adiabatic CD where 𝑇1 𝑉1 𝛾−1 = 𝑇2 𝑉4 𝛾−1 ………………......(vi)

Dividing,

We have,
𝑉2 𝛾−1 𝑉3 𝛾−1
( ) = ( )
𝑉1 𝑉4

𝑉2 𝑉3
=
𝑉1 𝑉4
𝑊 𝑇2
∴ 𝜂= =1−
𝑄1 𝑇1

Discussions:-

i. From the expression, we get 𝜂 depends on 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 the temperatures of the

source and sink, and is independent of the working substance. CarnotCycleOnIdealGas.cdf

ii. Although 𝜂 can be increased by increasing 𝑇1 and lowering 𝑇2 , the later will be
more effective. This can be shown as below.

Since
𝑊 𝑇2
𝜂= =1−
𝑄1 𝑇1

Now
𝑑𝜂 𝑑 𝑇2 𝑇2
= (1 − ) = 2
𝑑𝑇1 𝑑𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇1
and
𝑑𝜂 𝑑 𝑇2 1
= (1 − ) = −
𝑑𝑇2 𝑑𝑇2 𝑇1 𝑇1
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i.e.
𝑑𝜂 𝑑𝜂
| |>| |
𝑑𝑇2 𝑑𝑇1
Hence lowering the temperature of the sink will be more effective to increase the
efficiency.

iii) It is observed that even the idealized Carnot heat engine is not 100% efficient [η<1]
since T2 cannot be zero. Hence a complete conversion of heat into work is impossible.

Refrigerator:
Heat engine operating in the reverse direction, will act as an refrigerator; Here heat(𝑄2 )
will be extracted from the low temperature reservoir and transferred to the reservoir at
higher temperature by doing work upon it. The co-efficient of performance or figure of
merit of a refrigerator is defined as ,
𝑄2 𝑄2
𝜔 = =
𝑊 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

A reversible Carnot Engine operating in reverse direction, will act as an ideal refrigerator.

Here,
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𝑄2 𝑇2
𝜔 = =
𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑇1 − 𝑇2

Relation between η and 𝝎 :The efficiency of Carnot engine,

𝑊 𝑇2
𝜂= = 1−
𝑄1 𝑇1

Therefore,
𝑇2
= 1− 𝜂
𝑇1

𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑇1 1−𝜂 1
∴𝜔= = = = −1
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇 𝜂 𝜂
1− 2
𝑇1

1
∴ 𝜂=
1+𝜔

Kevin Planck statement : It is impossible to construct an engine which operating in

a cycle will produce no other effects than extraction of heat from a reservoir and
performance of an equivalent amount of work.

Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device which operating in a cycle

will produce no other effect then transfer of heat from a colder to a hotter body.

Equivalence of Kelvin-Plank &Clausius statement–

i) Let engine E absorbs 𝑸𝟏 amount of heat from the source at temperature (𝑻𝟏 )and
completely converts it into work(𝑾), without rejecting any heat to the cold
reservoir at temperature 𝑻𝟐 .Hence it violates K-P statement. Now the
Refrigerator R operating between the same temperature limits (𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 ), uses all
the work W1 and transfers 𝑸𝟐 + 𝑾 heat from cold to the hot reservoir without
violating any law.
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The engine 𝑬 and refrigerator R together constitute a self active device that transfer heat
𝑸𝟐 from cold body to the hot reservoir without producing any change elsewhere .Hence
Clausius statement is violated.

ii)Let the refrigerator R transfer 𝑸𝟐 heat from the cold reservoir (at temp T2) to a hot
reservoir (at temp T1) requiring no work. Thus, it violates Clausius statement. The engine
E extracts 𝑸𝟏 amount of heat from (𝑻𝟏 ) temperature and reject 𝑸𝟐 amount of heat at
lower temp (T2) .Hence it does not violate any law.
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The engine and the refrigerator together take (𝑸𝟏 – 𝑸𝟐 ) heat from hot reservoir and
perform an equivalent amount of work, without leaving any change anywhere. Hence K- P
statement is violated. Thus we conclude that the both statements of the second law are
equivalent.

Carnot’s Theorem: Working between the same two temperature limits, no engine can
be more efficient than a reversible one.

Proof : Let R and I be two reversible and irreversible engines, having efficiencies 𝜂𝐼 , 𝜂𝑅
working between two temperature limits 𝑻𝟏 and 𝑻𝟐 .

Let us consider the irreversible engines are more efficient than the reversible one.
𝜂𝐼 > 𝜂𝑅 ; thus our conclusion,

Engine I Engine R

Heat supplied Q Q

Heat Performed WI WR

Heat rejected 𝑄 − 𝑊𝐼 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑅

By our supposition 𝜂𝐼 > 𝜂𝑅 , i.e. The irreversible engine will produce more work
done 𝑊𝐼 , compare to the reversible 𝑊𝑅 taking the same amount of heat Q from the
source. ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑊𝑅 > 𝑊𝑅 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑄 − 𝑊𝐼 < 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑅

Since R is reversible, we take it to perform as a refrigerator as shown in fig.

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Now if the two engines I and R (in reverse process) are combined, then they constitute
a self –acting device which is extracting heat 𝑊𝐼 − 𝑊𝑅 from a cold reservoir and
completing converts into equivalent work (WI- WR) without leaving any change anywhere.
.Thus the 2nd Law of thermodynamic is violated .

Therefore 𝜂𝐼 ≯ 𝜂𝑟

Corollary: - All reversible engines, working between the same temperature limits have
the same thermal efficiency.
To prove this, let 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐 be two reversible engines, working between the same
temperature limits (𝑻𝟏 , 𝑻𝟐 ) .If we couple 𝑹𝟏 , 𝑹𝟐 taking 𝑹𝟏 to perform in reverse direction
(i.e as a refrigerator) we can conclude that 𝜂2 ≯ 𝜂1

Similarly, if 𝑹𝟐 performs as a refrigerator then,𝜂1 ≯ 𝜂2

Therefore, only possible result is 𝜼𝟏 = 𝜼𝟐 i.e. working between the same temperature
limits all reversible engines have the same thermal efficiency.

Q:Can a kitchen be cooled by leaving the door of an electric refrigerator open ?

Answer: A refrigerator extracts a heat from the colder body and reject to hot body
.Thus it cools the cold body further and further and heats the hot body more and more.
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So a refrigerator cools the indoor i.e. inside of the refrigerator where edibles are stored
but as heat pump, it heats up the inside of the room.

The above four statements (k-p statement, Clausius statement

Carnot’s Theorem and its corollary) are distinct buy not different,
and they should be the statements of 2nd law. (Be sure you can
show they are equivalent). Now what is 2nd law?

Let us go through Clausius theorem very carefully and see

whether it can melt the ice!

Absolute scale of temperature :-

The efficiency of a reversible engine is independent of the nature of the working
substance and is only a function of the two temperatures between which it works.
This concept was utilized by Lord Kelvin to define an absolute scale of temperature,
named Kelvin’s absolute or thermodynamic scale.
This scale is absolute in the sense that no property of the thermometric substance is
utilized to define it.

The new scale :- If 𝜂𝑅 be the efficiency of the reversible engine working between the
temperatures 𝜃1, 𝜃2(𝜃1 > 𝜃2) on any arbitrary scale and 𝜃1, 𝜃2 be corresponding heat
absorbed and rejected ,
𝑄1 − 𝑄2
∴ 𝜂𝑅 = = 𝑓(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 )
𝑄1
𝑄2
1− = 𝑓(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 )
𝑄1
𝑄1 1
= = 𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 ) … … … … … … (1)
𝑄2 1 − 𝑓(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 )

𝐹 is unknown function 𝑜𝑓 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 .
Now we consider two such engines ; the 1st takes in heat 𝑄1 𝑎𝑡 𝜃1 and rejects 𝑄2 heat at 𝜃2 temperature;
the second takes the rejected heat𝑄2 at 𝜃2 and rejects 𝑄3 𝑎𝑡 𝜃3(< 𝜃2 )

As shown in the diagram,

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𝑄1
= 𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 );
𝑄2
𝑄2
= 𝐹(𝜃2 , 𝜃3 )
𝑄3

The two engines coupled together constitutes a 3rd

one , that takes in heat 𝑄1 or and rejects at 𝑄3 at 𝜃3.
𝑄1
= 𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃3 )
𝑄3

Now,
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄2
= ×
𝑄3 𝑄2 𝑄3

𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃3 ) = 𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 ) × 𝐹(𝜃2 , 𝜃3 )

𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃3 )
𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 ) =
𝐹(𝜃2 , 𝜃3 )

If we set 𝜃3 , as constant,
𝑄1 𝜓(𝜃1 )
𝐹(𝜃1 , 𝜃2 ) = =
𝑄2 𝜓(𝜃2 )

As 𝜃1 > 𝜃2 , 𝜓(𝜃1 ) > 𝜓(𝜃2 ) is a monotonic increasing function of 𝜃, hence can be used to
measure the temperature.

Putting 𝜓(𝜃) = 𝜏,
𝑄1 𝜏1
=
𝑄2 𝜏2

The above equation defines a new scale of temperature independent of working

substance such that the ratio of two temperatures on this scale is equal to the ratio of heat
absorbed and heat rejected by a reversible engine working between these two
temperatures .
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Zero of the new scale :- The zero of the new scale ( 𝜏 = 0) is temperature at which 𝑄2 =
0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜂𝑅 = 1. A complete conversation of heat into work occurs. This is the limiting case and τ cannot be
less than this. Thus 𝜏 = 0 signifies the absolute zero of temperature on thermodynamics scale .

Size of the degree :- Let a Carnot engine operates with the cold reservoir at the triple point of
water and the hot reservoir at the boiling point of water .
∴
𝑄𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑄𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝜏𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
= = => 𝜏𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 𝜃𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 273.16 273.16
If the interval between 𝜏𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 and triple point be divided into 100 equal part ; we obtain the size of one
degree on the new scale to be equal to that on Celsius scale.

Assignment on engine:
1. What do you mean by quasistatic process? ‘A reversible process in quasi-static but the reverse
statement is not true’- Justify the statement. CU 2013, 15

2. A gas is contained in a cylinder with a movable piston at one end. State for each of the following
cases where, the work done by the system 𝑑𝑤 = 𝑝𝑑𝑣 or not in each of the following cases,
i. There is no external pressure on the piston and there is no friction between the cylinder and the
piston.
ii. There is no external pressure and friction is small.
iii. The friction is adjusted to allow the gas to expand slowly.
iv. There is no friction but the external pressure is adjusted to expand slowly.

3. Describe the working of a Carnot engine operating between two sources at temperatures 𝑇2 and
𝑇1 (𝑇2 > 𝑇1 ). What is the need to have two sources at different temperatures?

4. Define the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator. CU 2016

5. The efficiency of a Carnot engine can be increased either by increasing source temperature or by
decreasing sink temperature. Which process is more efficient?
CU 2016
6. A 100 kW engine is operating between 127°C and 27°C. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed,
heat rejected and efficiency of the engine.

7. A Carnot engine with the sink at 10°𝐶 has an efficiency of 30%. By how much must the
temperature of the source be changed to increase its efficiency to 50%?
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8. Two Carnot engines A and B are operated in series. Engine A absorbs heat at 500 K and rejects
heat to a sink at temperature T. Engine B absorbs half of the heat rejected by engine A and rejects
heat to the sink at 200 K. If the work done in both the case is equal, calculate T.

9. A freezer is maintained at a temperature of -10°C and the room temperature is 30°C. To maintain
the freezer temperature, heat is removed at the rate of 1200 Js'. Calculate the COP and the amount
of heat discarded to the surroundings.

10. A 100 kW engine is operating between 127°C and 27°C. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed,
heat rejected and efficiency of the engine.

11. A Carnot engine is operated in reverse order. The work input to the unit is 12 kW and COP=2.5.
For cooling, calculate the ratio of temperatures within which the device operates.

12. A Carnot engine is operated in the reverse cycle between 200 K and 300 K. Calculate the power
required to affect refrigeration by 150 W, if the refrigerator works at (a) 100% coefficient and (b)
60% coefficient of performance.

13. [IISc-12] An engine of efficiency 𝜂 operates between two reservoirs at temperature 𝑇1and 𝑇2 with
𝑇2 > 𝑇1 doing an amount of work 𝑊 in one cycle. All of this work is used to drive an ideal Carnot
engine in reverse (as a refrigerator) between two reservoirs. Calculate the total heat extracted
from the hot reservoir in one combined cycle of the two engine.

14. [JAM-06] The temperature differences between hot (𝑇𝐻 ) and cold (𝑇𝐶 ) reservoirs of two Carnot
𝜂𝐴 1
engines A and B are the same. If the ratio of the respective efficiencies, 𝜂𝐵 , is equal to 2 then
𝑇𝐴
calculate the ratio of the hot reservoir temperatures 𝑇𝐻𝐵 .
𝐻

15. A heat pump working on the Carnot cycle maintains the inside temperature of a house at 22℃ by
supplying 450 𝑘𝐽/𝑠. If the outside temperature is 0℃, then find the amount of heat taken in 𝑘𝐽/𝑠,
from the outside air.