Continuation…….. 3.

Error detectors (comparators) : which is a physical part of the

controlling circuit that determines the difference between the actual
1.7. What are the process control interests? variable and the set-point value before taking any control action.
The main interests of the process control are: 4. Controllers (industrial or computer) : which performs the action
a. Process design: where the process must be designed such that should be taken in accordance to the determined error and regulates
being with rapid response and minimal disturbances. or compensates the controlled variable to bring it to the desired set-
b. Measurements: where the sensors have to be selected with rapid point or reference value.
response and high accuracy. 5. Final control elements (actuators) : which is the device that
c. Final elements: where the final control elements must be provided exerts a direct influence on the process or provides the required
and handled so that the manipulated variables can be adjusted by changes in the controlled variable to bring it to the set-point.
the control calculation.
d. Control structure: where the basic issues in designing the The importance of process control
controller must be considered such as which control element should
be manipulated to control which measurement. Process- is a method of changing or refining raw materials to create
e. Control calculations: where equations are used to handle the end products.
measurements and the desired values in calculating the manipulated
variables. Process Control- methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product.
1.8. How can the process control be documented?
The process control can be documented in many forms: The importance of process control in terms of variability,
a. Equipment specifications and sizing. efficiency, and safety:
b. Operating manuals.
c. technical experiments and control equations. Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:
d. Engineering drawings. 1. Reduce variability (Process Variability) -
e. ROMs for storing the control algorithms. involves implementing solutions to reduce or eliminate the
f. Additional EPROMs. sources of variability. Solutions can include process
improvements, training, standardization, and automation.
2. Increase Efficiency - involves implementing solutions to
reduce or eliminate the sources of variability. Solutions can
include process improvements, training, standardization,
and automation. Some processes need to be maintained at
a specific point to maximize efficiency.

Stirred-tank with composite control Combined Heat & Power Device. Producing efficient output
with only 10% loss

Flow controller

The process drawings include some symbols such as :

A - Analyzer
F – Flow rate 3. Ensure safety - Precise process control is required to
L – Level of liquid or solids in a vessel ensure safety. For example, maintaining proper boiler
P – Pressure pressure is crucial in preventing boiler implosions that can
T - Temperature clearly threaten the safety of workers.

1.9. What are the control strategies? Control Theory Basics

The following diagram displays a sample of the most commonly used
control strategies. Of course, the control strategy is different from one a. The control Loop- A control loop is a system designed to
process to another in accordance to its topology, complexity and maintain a process variable at a desired set point by
objectives. continuously monitoring and adjusting inputs through
feedback mechanisms. It consists of components such
as sensors, controllers, and actuators that work together to
achieve and maintain the desired value of a system
variable. Control loops are fundamental in industrial
automation and process management, ensuring that
systems operate efficiently and effectively.

Requirements tasks a.) measurement, b.) Comparison c.)

Adjustment

1.10. #1 Question: What do you want to measure?

#2 Question: What do you compare your measurement
Components of industrial process
with?
The industrial processes comprise several types of components:
#3 Question: What do you adjust to obtain the required
1. Process: which in general can consist of a complex assembly
measurement?
related to some manufacturing sequence. The process involves
some variables needed to be controlled in order to accomplish the
desired goal of it. So, one can say that the process may be single
variable process or multivariable process according to the number of
variables to be controlled.
2. Measuring elements (sensors) : which represents the devise that
transforms or converts the measured variables into some forms
required by the other elements in the process control operation.
Signal conditioning may be required to complete the measurement
function in some cases.
 Control algorithms- are mathematical formulas used to regulate
and optimize industrial processes. They analyze data from sensors,
make adjustments to process variables, and ensure that the process
operates within desired parameters.

Manual control systems-humans are entirely responsible for

overseeing and executing processes. All decision-making,
adjustments, and corrections must be performed by the human
operator. For example, when driving a car, the driver must directly
control speed, direction, and stopping.

Automatic control systems- operate based on sensors, pre-

programmed instructions, and algorithms. These systems
automatically analyze conditions and implement necessary actions.
Process Control Terms For instance, a
smart thermostat
 Process variable, Measured/Controlled variable and controls the
Manipulated variable temperature
 Setpoint automatically
 Error according to
 Offset the user’s
 Load disturbance settings.
 Control algorithm
 Manual and automatic control
 Closed and open control loops

Feedback is the key difference between open- and closed-loop

Process Variables- A process variable (PV) is the current measured controls.
value of a specific parameter in a process that is being monitored or Closed-loop control advantages include automatic corrections to
controlled. It represents the actual state of the process in real-time process disturbances and they can be kept on a set point.
and is crucial for control systems. Examples of process variables Open-loop controls are useful for situations where output rarely
include temperature, pressure, flow, level, density, Ph, mass and changes and the process is erratic.
voltage, which are obtained from sensors and used for monitoring
and regulation. Components of control loops and ISA symbology
Primary components in a control loop includes:
A controlled variable, also known as a control variable or constant,  Primary sensors: These measure process variables and
is any factor in an experiment that is intentionally kept unchanged provide signals to the controller.
throughout the process. Its purpose is to eliminate the influence of  Transducers: Convert energy from one form to another.
extraneous variables that could confound the relationship between  Transmitters: Transmit signals, a device that converts a
the independent and dependent variables. Example: Duration of the reading from a sensor or transducer into a standard signal
process, size and composition of container, volume, level. and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller,
example, pressure transmitter, flow transmitter,
Manipulated Variable – The manipulated variable is the parameter temperature transmitter, level transmitter, analytic
that is adjusted to bring the process back to the desired setpoint. The transmitter etc.
manipulated variable in this case is the water entering the tank. The  Indicators: Display information.
water flow is manipulated in order to keep the level constant as the  Recorders: Record data.
output demand changes.  Controllers: Manage the control loop.
 Final control elements: Actuators that affect the process.
Setpoint is a desired value of a process variable. It can be any Part of the control system
physical quantity or parameter that a control system seeks to that acts to physically
regulate, such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, position, speed, change/ adjust the
or any other measurable attribute. In the context of PID controller, the manipulated variable.
setpoint represents the reference or goal for the controlled process Examples; valve, pump,
variable. solenoid.
Error- in control system, error ISA Symbology- International
signals play a crucial role, often Society of Automation (ISA) has
serving as leading indicators. They established a standardized set of
act as early warnings, alerting us when things deviate from the symbols and identification codes that
desired state. This early detection is essential, especially in are used to represent various
managing process variability and disturbances, also known as types of process instruments,
statistical fluctuations. control devices, and system
components.
Offset refers to a sustained error. It occurs when the controlled
Process Variable (PV) deviates from the Set-Point (SP) due to factors
such as load changes or control system limitations.
Example, in the temperature control loop example, if the control
system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even though
the setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5 °C exists.

Load disturbance- can be any unexpected change in the system,

such as fluctuations in raw materials, environmental changes, or
sudden shifts in demand.
 components of a physical process flow and is commonly used in the
engineering field to maintain and modify the represented process.
P&IDs are essential documents in industries such as chemical,
petrochemical, and food processing, as they provide critical
information about the system's layout and functionality.

Identification letters and tag numbers

ISA Codes for Process Instrumentation
In general, every conventional measuring or controlling instrument
Installed in a process unit is identified by three separate codes as
follows.
 A location number code indicates the specific process unit
in which the instrument is installed.
 A function letter code indicates the property or process
variable being measured or controlled.
 A serial number code identifies the specific instrument and
therefore prevents confusion when there are several
Instruments In a single process unit, each having the same
function letter code.
 The combination of the three codes is known as the
Instrument tag number, which has the basic format
xx a – yyy

TAG NUMBERS

 ‘’xx” is a two-digit number used to identify the process unit.

 ‘a’ is a letter code containing two or more capital letters and
is used to identify the instrument function.
 ‘yyy’ is a three-digit number used to identify the particular
instrument.
 When the instrument code or tag number is written on a
drawing or document, a dash is inserted between the ‘a’
and the ‘yyy’ sections of the format. For example,
a pressure indicating controller installed in a process unit
coded 11 and identified by serial number 1101, is described
in written form as 11 – PIC – 1101.
 In the case of the same tag numbers, the process pressure
correcting element, usually a control valve, often has the
same tag number as the controller.
 However, when the controller operates two valves in a split
range mode, the valves are tagged and numbered
consecutively,
First Letter
First letter indicates a measured or initiating variable, or
a modifier, such as Current (I), Speed (S) or Flow (F).
Measured or Initiating Variable
A - Analysis
B - Burner, combustion
C - User's choice
D - User's choice
E - Voltage
F - Flow rate
G- User's choice
H - Hand
I - Current (electrical)
J - Power
K - Time, time schedule
L - Level
M- User's choice
N- User's choice
O- User's choice
P - Pressure, vacuum
Q - Quantity
R - Radiation
S - Speed, frequency
T - Temperature
U - Multivariable
V - Vibration, mechanical analyses
W - Weight, force
X - Unclassified
Y - Event, state or presence
Piping and Instrumentation Drawing (P&ID)-A Piping and Z - Position, dimension
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) is a detailed graphical Modifier
representation of the piping, process flow, instrumentation, and D - Differential
control systems of a physical process. It shows the piping and related F - Ration (fraction)
J - Scan
K - Time rate of change
M - Momentary
Q - Integrate, totalizer
S - Safety
X - X-axis
Y - Y-axis
Z - Z-axis
Second or Succeeding Letters
Second or succeeding letters indicates a readout or passive
function, output function or a modifier function.
Readout or Passive Function
A - Alarm
B - User's choice
E - Sensor (primary element)
G- Glass, viewing device
I - Indication
L - Light
N- User's choice
O- Orifice, restriction
P - Point (test connection)
R - Record
U - Multifunction
W - Well
X - Unclassified
Output Function
B - User's choice
C - Control
K - Control Station
N- User's choice
S - Switch
T - Transmit
U - Multifunction
V - Valve, damper, louver
X - Unclassified
Y - Relay, compute, convert
Z - Driver, actuator
Modifier Function
B - User's choice
H - High
L - Low
M - Middle, intermediate
N- User's choice
U - Multifunction
X - Unclassified

Examples - P&ID codes

Flowmeter - Indicating
 FI 001
Temperature - Transmitter
 TT 001
Control Valve
 FV 001
Position Switch - High Level
 ZSH 001