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CRI2601/1/2021–2024

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 CONTENTS

1 Page
OVERVIEW v

STUDY UNIT 1: Collecting information from various sources 1

STUDY UNIT 2: The roles of various crime information systems in policing 16
STUDY UNIT 3: Analysis of crime information 32
STUDY UNIT 4: T he planning of crime prevention operations using information
gathered from various sources 45

(iii) CRI2601/1/2021–2024
4

(iv)
 OVERVIEW

1 WELCOME TO MODULE CRI2601

The aim of this module is to equip students with detailed knowledge, skills and values
5

required to plan crime prevention operations using information systems in the South
African policing environment. Students who complete this module will be able to collect,
explain, analyse and utilise crime information gathered from various sources for mapping
and planning crime prevention operations. This module will enable students to practise
the principles of Africanisation, ubuntu, humanisation of the law and social responsibility.
Students will acquire coherent presentation skills to communicate complex information
using appropriate academic and occupational conventions, formats and technologies.

2 STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY GUIDE

6The study guide comprises the following study units:
y Collecting information from various sources
y The roles of various crime information systems in policing
y Analysis of crime information
y The planning of crime prevention operations using information gathered from vari-
ous sources

3 OUTCOMES OF THE MODULE

7Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:
y apply relevant guiding principles when managing information relating to the policing
environment
y explain the roles of various crime information systems in policing
y explain the analysis of crime information
y plan crime prevention operations using information gathered from various sources

4 ACTIVITIES
The activities in this study guide are meant for self-reflection and will not be marked.
8

However, you are encouraged to complete them.

Study units one and three were compiled by DT Masiloane. Study units two and
9

four were compiled by M Montesh.

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(v) CRI2601/1
 5 KEY TO ICONS
11 The following icon is used throughout the study guide to indicate a specific function:

ACTIVITY
12

13 FEEDBACK

This icon indicates that you have to complete certain activities that will assist you with
14

your studies.
15 Lecturer’s contact details
16 Ms Mmabatho Aphane
17 College of Law
18 Brooklyn Campus
19 Office number: G23
20 Tel: 012 433 9418
21 E-mail: [email protected]

6 MODULE SUMMARY

Crime Information Systems

22

23Collect crime information

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25Feed information into various systems

26

27Analyse the information

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(Use the information to) plan crime prevention operations

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(vi)
Study unit 1
Collecting information from various sources

CONTENTS

Learning outcomes
1.1 Overview
1.2 Introduction
1.3 The legal mandate to gather information
1.4 Sources of police information
1.5 Guidelines on questioning
1.6 The integrity and validity of the information gathered
1.7 The recording of information
1.8 Conclusion
List of references

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this study unit, you should be able to:

− collect crime information as legally mandated for the police
− identify various sources of crime information
− follow guidelines for questioning
− record crime information accurately
− ensure the integrity and validity of information collected

1.1 OVERVIEW
Welcome to the first lesson of this module. This is one of four study units that are aimed
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at introducing you to the relevance and importance of sound information management

in crime prevention. We start off this module with a focus on how to collect crime-related
information from various sources.

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 1.2 INTRODUCTION
The police are primarily responsible for maintaining law and order in the country. The
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effective and efficient maintenance of law and order is, to a large extent, dependent
on the information that the police obtain before the commission of a crime in order to
prevent it, during the commission of a crime in order for them to catch the perpetrators
red handed or after the commission of a crime so that they can identify and arrest those
who committed the crime. Therefore, the effectiveness and efficiency of the police largely
depend on their ability to collect, process and utilise information. Intelligence-driven
policing, as this is commonly known, serves as the bedrock of an effective and efficient
police department.

It is important for you to understand from the onset that the collection, processing and
32

utilisation of information does not happen in a vacuum but is governed by certain rules
and regulations to ensure that it is done equitably. Furthermore, the validity and reli-
ability of information gathered should be unquestionable in order for the information
to be credible.

33 The focus of this study unit is to familiarise you with:

y the legal mandate of the police to gather information
y sources of police information
y guidelines for questioning people, such as witnesses and suspects
y the recording of information
y the importance of ensuring the integrity and validity of information collected

1.3 THE LEGAL MANDATE TO GATHER INFORMATION

In South Africa, the responsibility of the police to collect information is directly related
34

to their constitutional mandate of preventing, combating and investigating crime for the
ultimate end of maintaining law and order in the country (Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa, 1996; South African Police Service Act 68 of 1995). The National Strategic
Intelligence Act 39 of 1994 provides various ways in which information can be collected
and utilised by law enforcement agencies.

In the light of the police’s mandate and responsibilities, it is clear that gathering information
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is not the sole responsibility of police officials who work in the Crime Intelligence Division
– it is the ultimate responsibility of all police officials since it enables the police department
to fulfil its obligations. The collection of information should, however, be done within the
limits and constraints of the law. From the limitation clause of the Constitution of 1996, it
is clear to what extent the police can infringe an individual’s rights. Moreover, the police
are not only empowered to collect information but are also obliged to disclose certain
information in terms of the Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000.

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2
37 What do the following Acts say about the police’s mandate to collect information?

1.3.1 Electronic Communications Act 36 of 2005

38 The Act intends
y to promote convergence in the broadcasting, broadcasting signal distribution and
telecommunications sectors and to provide the legal framework for convergence of
these sectors
y to make new provision for the regulation of electronic communications services
y to provide for the granting of new licences and new social obligations
y to provide for the control of the radio frequency spectrum
y to provide for the continued existence of the Universal Service Agency and the Uni-
versal Service Fund
y to provide for the matters incidental thereto

1.3.2 Minimum Information Security Standards (MISS)

The Minimum Information Security Standards are standards regarding the minimum
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information security measures that any institution should put in place for sensitive or
classified information to protect national security.

In this lesson, specific legislation that enables the police to collect and utilise crime-related
40

information will be dealt with in the context of various sources of police information.
Contextualisation of this legislation will demonstrate the extent to which the police
can utilise available legislation and what the implications are of their utilisation of such
legislation.

Now that you know that it is the police’s constitutional responsibility to gather information
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relating to crime, we will look at the different sources of information that the police can
utilise.

ACTIVITY 1.1

Take a moment to think of sources of crime information that you have used in the line of
duty that helped you prevent or investigate crime.
y List as many sources as you have used.
y Group similar sources together (categorise them).
y Name each of the categories you come up with.
Use the space below to do this activity.
Activity space

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 FEEDBACK
Some of the sources of information are discussed in section 1.4.

1.4 SOURCES OF POLICE INFORMATION

Police officials should first and foremost know where and how to access information.
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There are various ways in which the police can obtain information on crime and criminal
activities, and all these sources of information should be utilised properly. The transfer
of information involves two parties: the one party imparts the information by means of
speaking, writing, imprinting, pointing or signalling and the other party receives the in-
formation by means of listening, reading or watching (Flowerday & Von Solms 2007). To
ensure that information that is collected is useful in helping the police to control crime,
it must meet the following criteria suggested by Marx, Van Rooyen, Bosch and Reynders
(2006:660):

y It must be relevant to crime management, that is, it should assist the police with the
prevention, combating or investigation of crime.
y It must be supplied to the police timely so that it is usable. Information supplied late
tends to be of less value in the prevention, combating and investigation of crime. This
does not in any way suggest that historical information is useless. To put this in its
proper perspective, one has to understand that there is value attached to historical
information because it may be used to some extent in the investigation of crime and
the prevention of a recurrence of crime. Current information can be used in combating
crime and catching criminals red handed. Future information, which is what modern
policing should spend a lot of resources in acquiring, goes a long way in enhancing
the police’s ability to prevent crime.

4
Information must be accurate to enhance the police’s precision and to minimise unlawful
43

action by the police. Accuracy is the cardinal rule that must be maintained as far as
possible during the collection of information (Marx et al. 2006:684). Active listening is
the most effective method that police officials should train themselves in to facilitate
the effective collection of information narrated by people. This skill will enable them not
only to understand what informants, witnesses or complainants are telling them but also
to read between the lines by interpreting the narrators’ expressions and gestures. The
three major sources of police information that will be dealt with below are informants,
witnesses/complainants and the police’s own discoveries.

1.4.1 Informants
The use of informants by the police in the prevention, combating or investigation of
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crime cannot be emphasised enough. No police agency would be able to discharge its
constitutional mandate without the use of informants. The informer system remains an
integral component of fighting crime and it must continuously be appraised for quality,
reliability, extensiveness and integrity (South Africa 1998). The Protected Disclosures Act
26 of 2000 was promulgated in order to protect people who give information about
suspected criminal or unlawful activities. This legislation encourages people to disclose
illegal activities without the fear of being victimised.

A critical role of every police official is to cultivate and manage informants. Police officials
45

have to establish a rapport between themselves and informants because informants have
to trust them to be able to divulge information. In contrast, police officials need to verify
and validate all the information given by informants, which implies that police officials
should not trust that every bit of information given is true (Palmiotto 2004:83).

1.4.2 Witnesses/complainants
People normally report crime to the police voluntarily. In such instances, they do not have
46

a problem cooperating with the police during further investigations (Bakker, Geldenhuys,
Joubert, Swanepoel, Terblanche, Van der Merwe & Van Rooyen 1998:108). However, if the
police get to know of a crime that has been or will be committed and the person who
can provide information on that crime is on a certain premises, they have powers in terms
of section 26 of the Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 to enter such premises in order to
interrogate and obtain a statement from that person. Note that a police official may not
enter a private dwelling without the consent of the occupant or a warrant to that effect
(Bakker et al 1998:109). When police officials have entered such premises, they have the
power in terms of section 41 (1) of the Criminal Procedure Act to obtain the name and
address of the following categories of people:
y Any person whom they have the power to arrest.
y Any person who is reasonably suspected of having committed or having attempted
to commit a crime.
y Any person who may be able to give evidence with regard to the commission or
suspected commission of crime.

5 CRI2601/1
If the police need a person to answer certain questions and that person refuses to do
47

so, they can, through the public prosecutor, utilise section 205 of the Criminal Procedure
Act. In terms of this section, a magistrate or a judge may compel a person who is likely
to give material or relevant information of any alleged offence to do so. To safeguard the
safety of witnesses, section 7 (1) of the Witness Protection Act 112 of 1998 provides that
any witness who believes that his/her safety might be threatened by such testimony may
apply to be placed under witness protection.

For witnesses/complainants to play an important role in the resolution of crime, police

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officials should acquire at least basic interviewing skills. A police official who interviews a
witness or a complainant must create the appropriate relaxed atmosphere, which could
be achieved as follows, according to Ainsworth (1995:32):
y The police official should provide a relaxed environment that is free of disturbances.
A noisy atmosphere where people are moving up and down will not only disturb the
conversation that is taking place but can also affect the thinking or recollection pattern
of both the police official and the interviewee. This could have a negative impact on
the accuracy of the information recorded and make the interviewee withhold sensitive
information that he/she does not want to be overheard by other people.
y The police official should make the witness relax by starting with general conversation
before asking any questions on the incident.
y The police official must strike a balance between making the interviewee feel impor-
tant and putting pressure on him/her. Comments like “You are our last hope – we are
relying on you” could be counterproductive since they could increase the anxiety
level of the interviewee.
y The police official must be seen to be relaxed and patient. If the police official is seen
to be nervous, it could influence the anxiety level of the interviewee.
y The police official must gently encourage the interviewee to provide more facts by
being non-judgmental on aspects mentioned by the interviewee. A judgmental at-
titude could make the interviewee relate only those facts that he/she thinks will be
of interest to the police official and withhold some facts that could be crucial in the
prevention or detection of a crime.

1.4.3 The police’s own discoveries

According to Reiss (1971:97), 93% of all criminal incidents known to the police in Chicago
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were brought to their attention by the public. This indicates that only a small number of
offences become known as a result of the police’s own discoveries. Lotter, Ndabandaba
and Esterhuysen (1990:129) comment that without community involvement, the criminal
justice system would only be involved in solving a small number of criminal incidents. Few
crimes are discovered by the police themselves during their normal duties, because the
mere sight of police will deter a person from committing crime. The need for the police
to be vigilant at all times brings an important dimension to the prevention, combating
and investigation of crime.

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6
The Interception and Monitoring Prohibition Act 127 of 1992 enables the police to intercept
51

and monitor communications. This can only be done after permission to do so has been
granted by a judge. An increase in the number of cybercrimes has led to the promulgation
of the Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25 of 2002 to strengthen the
police’s ability to deal with such crimes.

Before you attempt the activity that follows, you might need to read through the three
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categories of crime information sources again.

ACTIVITY 1.2

In the course of your duties you have probably already come across the three sources of
crime information.
Take one source that you have already used and tell us how you came across the informa-
tion and how you used it, for example, crime information that you gathered on a routine
patrol. Tell us how this information was eventually used to prevent, investigate or combat
crime in your community.
Now go back to the recommendations on how to gather information that are provided
above and check to see if you can improve your information collection process next time.
First tell your story and then list aspects that you have to improve on.
Scenario
First National Bank was robbed by a group of gunmen on 2019/09/09 on the corner of
Stanza Bopape and Jan Shoba Streets in Tshwane at about 10:00. Four armed men en-
tered the bank while three men sat in a getaway car outside. As the four suspects ran
out of the bank, armed security officers engaged in a gun battle with them, resulting
in motorists coming to a standstill and pedestrians fleeing in all directions. Fortunately,
no one other than a suspect was wounded. The wounded suspect managed to escape,
leaving behind a pool of blood on the sidewalk. A number plate of the getaway vehicle
was discovered at the scene.
Identify and discuss the various sources of information in the above scenario. Provide
examples from the scenario to reflect your understanding of these sources of information.
Use the lines below.

7 CRI2601/1
 FEEDBACK
You have to understand the sources of police information in order to do the above
activity.

Now that you are familiar with sources of crime information, we will turn to questioning
53

techniques, which are arguably the most widely used and most effective tool for collect-
ing crime information.

1.5 GUIDELINES ON QUESTIONING

Questions should be structured in such a way that they are understandable and they
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should be directed at obtaining the required information. The five main types of ques-
tions that could be used to get information are as follows:

y Closed questions: Closed questions are normally designed to focus the respondent
on a particular issue and the answers are usually short. These are the questions that
the police could use to get the specific details of an incident. Examples of closed
questions are as follows:
− Was the person shot or stabbed?
− Was the person run over by the black car or the maroon car?
y Open questions: Open questions enable the respondent to answer freely and to
structure the answers according to his/her will and understanding. Open questions
are more useful in cases where the police do not have sufficient information or when
the police want to know more about a certain incident. Examples of such questions
are as follows:
− Tell me more about your relationship with the deceased.
− Explain to me how he/she was stabbed.
y Probing questions: Probing questions could emanate from the answers given to
open questions or could emanate from the police official’s own understanding of an
incident. These questions are designed to extract more information from the respond-
ent. Examples of probing questions are as follows:
− Who killed him/her?
− Where were you when you witnessed the shooting?

8
y Leading questions: Leading questions are largely based on the prior information/
knowledge that the police official has. Examples of leading questions are as follows:
− Do you still smoke dagga? (This question insinuates that the police official knows
that the person smokes dagga.)
− Have you been arrested for possession of an unlicensed firearm again? (This ques-
tion insinuates that the police official knows that the person has a prior arrest for
possession of an unlicensed firearm.)
y Multiple questions: Multiple questions are questions in which the respondent is asked
more than one question at the same time, as in the following example:
− Did you make the accident while driving under the influence of liquor after
you had stabbed a person at the bottle store?

This is normally not a good way of questioning people since it can be confusing, or the
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respondent can choose to answer only one or some of the questions, thus not providing
all the information that is required.

1.6 THE INTEGRITY AND VALIDITY OF THE INFORMATION

GATHERED
Information integrity is a crucial aspect of procedural fairness of police actions. Preserv-
56

ing the integrity of information is of critical importance. Classified information is stored

in terms of the Minimum Information Security Standards (South Africa 1996b:40). The
police have a responsibility to verify and corroborate information gathered to ensure its
validity and integrity. One hundred per cent integrity, in the same way as 100% security,
is an elusive concept because of various limitations (Flowerday & Von Solms 2007).

1.7 THE RECORDING OF INFORMATION

Notes should be taken to ensure that all the information given or observed is accurately
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recorded. The police should be aware that it is not only the spoken word that should be
recorded but also the body language (tone of voice, facial expressions and emotional
expressions) displayed by the person giving the information (Palmoitto 2004:71). These
features sometimes convey more information than what is verbally relayed by the person.
It is advisable to review the notes with the person at the end of the information session to
rule out the possibility of misinterpretation and to establish the accuracy of the recorded
facts. The information that is not used immediately should be safely stored or captured
in the designed system where its accuracy will not be tampered with, thus affecting its
validity.

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The following information is among the most critical that should be recorded in relation
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to a reported incident (Fox & Cunningham 1985:33):

y the name and address of the witness/complainant/informant
y the nature of the offence
y the place of the incident
y the date and time of the offence
y the method used to commit the crime
y the instrument used to commit the crime

The above-mentioned information is not only important for identifying and arresting
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offenders but also for profiling the modus operandi used in crimes that have been per-
petrated. This profiling is very useful when dealing with organised crime. This approach
is based on the assumption in crime analysis that crimes are neither random nor isolated
activities but can be reconciled to depict a certain distinct pattern (Ekblom 1998:3).

ACTIVITY 1.3

(1) Give two examples of instances where a person is or could be compelled to give
information to the police or the prosecution.
Answer (a)

Answer (b)

(2) Give two examples of instances where the police could be compelled to divulge
information to an interested party.

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(3) Name three sources of police information, giving one example in each case to reflect
your understanding of the sources.
Answer (a)

Example:

Answer (b)

Example:

Answer (c)

Example:

11 CRI2601/1
(4) Name five types of questions that the police could use to obtain information and
give one example of each type.
Answer (a)

Example:

Answer (b)

Example:

Answer (c)

Example:

12
Answer (d)

Example:

Answer (e)

Example:

(5) Read the section on the recording of data again. Return to your story about collect-
ing information from an informant or a complainant/witness or through your own
discovery.
y Check your story (on information gathered) and compare it with the guidelines on
the recording of data given above. List differences between your procedures for
recording data and the guidelines provided above, for example, “I did not record
the method used to commit the crime.”

List the differences here:

13 CRI2601/1
 Find someone in the police service and ask him/her about the Minimum Information
Security Standards (South Africa 1996b:40).
Write a paragraph and tell us your findings about information integrity as described in
the Minimum Information Security Standards (South Africa 1996b:40).

FEEDBACK
Please note: the activities are for self-evaluation/self-reflection purposes and will not be marked
by the lecturer.

1.8 CONCLUSION
Now, hopefully, you can see that for the police to fulfil their responsibility of guaranteeing
61

the safety and security of citizens, it is crucial that they collect crime information from
the community and utilise that information correctly. No police department could be self-
sufficient in dealing with crime without community involvement. The next three study
units will shed more light on various systems that are used to capture crime information,
how this information is analysed and, ultimately, how it is used to inform measures aimed
at the prevention, combating and investigation of crime.

14
LIST OF REFERENCES

Ainsworth, PB. 1995. Psychology and policing in a changing world. New York: Wiley.
Bakker, PM, Geldenhuys, T, Joubert, JJ, Swanepoel, JP, Terblanche, SS, Van der Merwe, SE
& van Rooyen, JH. 1998. Criminal procedure handbook. Pretoria: Juta.
Ekblom, P. 1988. Getting the best out of crime analysis. Available at: https://scholar.
google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Ekblom%2C+P.+1988.+Getting+the
+best+out+of+crime+analysis&btnG= (accessed on 27 August 2008).
Flowerday, S & von Solms, R. 2007. What constitutes information integrity? Available at:
https://journals.co.za/docserver/fulltext/info/9/4/191.pdf?expires=1590437809&id=i
d&accname=guest&checksum=A12CF40394F1D46A07F080656082AEDC (accessed
on 15 August 2008).
Fox, RH & Cunningham, CC. 1985. Crime scene search and physical evidence handbook.
Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Lotter, J M, Ndabandaba, LBG & Esterhuysen, R. 1990. Crime and its impact: a study in a
black metropolitan area. Pretoria: HSRC.
Marx, S, van Rooyen, DC, Bosch, JK & Reynders, HJJ. 2006. Business management. 2nd
edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Palmiotto, MJ. 2004. Criminal investigation. 3rd edition. Dallas: University Press of America.
Reiss, AJ. 1971. The police and the public. New Haven: Yale University Press.
South Africa. 1977. Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. 1992. Interception and Monitoring Prohibition Act 127 of 1992. Government
Printer.
South Africa. 1996a. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
South Africa. 1996b. Minimum Information Security Standards 1996. Pretoria: Government
Printer.
South Africa. 1998a. White Paper on Safety and Security: in Service of Safety 1999–2004.
Available at: http://www.info.gov.za/whitepapers/1998/safety.htm (accessed on 6
August 2008).
South Africa. 1998b. Witness Protection Act 112 of 1998. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South Africa. 2000a. Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000. Pretoria: Govern-
ment Printer.
South Africa. 2000b. Protected Disclosures Act 26 of 2000. Pretoria: Government Printer.

15 CRI2601/1
Study unit 2
The roles of various crime information systems in
policing

CONTENTS

Learning outcomes
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The role of the crime administration system
2.3 The role of the incident registration information system
2.4 The role of the automated fingerprint identification system
2.5 The role of a geographic information system
2.6 The role of a business intelligence information management system
2.7 The role of the circulation of wanted persons and stolen property system
2.8 The role of a crime management information system
2.9 The role of analyst’s notebook
2.10 The role of the profiling of suspects
2.11 The role of movement control of suspects
2.12 The role of operational planning and monitoring (opam)
2.13 Conclusion
List of references

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this study unit, you should be able to explain the roles of various
information systems in preventing and combating crime by:
− evaluating the benefits of the Crime Administration System (CAS) and the Incident
Registration Information System (IRIS)
− comparing the roles played by the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
and the Geographic Information System (GIS)
− discussing cases where some of the crime information systems are used in preventing
and combating crime by the SAPS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We will now look at some of the crime information systems that are in use in the South
62

African policing environment. Crime information that is collected from the sources that
we talked about in the preceding unit is often or always processed through one or more
of the information systems discussed in this unit.

16
In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of computers within police agencies,
63

not just in general administration (e.g., payroll, personnel, e-mail, general office suites)
but also as a tool to assist with the core business activities of policing, namely, preventing
and solving crime.

Increasing crime rates and a greater awareness of modern criminals put a strain on existing
64

methods and techniques. There is, therefore, a clear need for the application of advanced
software technologies in order to make the best use of limited resources. It is common
knowledge that crime occurs in a variety of forms. The police informally categorise crimes
as either major crimes or volume crimes. Major crimes consist of the high-profile crimes
such as murder, armed robbery and non-date rape. These crimes can either be one-offs
or serial. In the case of serial crimes, it is relatively easy to link crimes on the grounds of
clear similarities in respect of modus operandi or descriptions of offenders. This linking
is possible because of the comparatively low volume of such crimes. Teams of detectives
are usually allocated to the investigation of major crimes.

In contrast, volume crimes such as burglary and shoplifting are far more prevalent. They
65

are usually serial in nature since offenders go on to commit many such crimes. Property
crimes such as burglary offences that are committed by different individuals are highly
similar, and it is rare to have a description of the offenders. This makes it difficult to link
crimes. Also, a single investigating officer may have up to 100 different volume crimes to
investigate at any point in time.

With a view to satisfying this demand, police forces around the world employ specialist
66

crime analysts, that is to say, people who have specialist training in a variety of disciplines,
including investigative techniques, criminal psychology and information technology.
It is their task to assist investigating officers by analysing crime trends and patterns,
identifying links between crimes and producing packages that target individuals or
groups of offenders, linking them to a series of crimes.

Most, if not all, current systems, both manual and computerised, revolve around the
67

investigation of crimes that have already been committed. They are, therefore, reactive.
The majority of police agencies throughout the world use different types of relational
database management systems (RDBMS) for the recording and subsequent analysis of
crime. Standard or interactive queries are written to produce patterns of crime and various
statistics. The focus of this study unit is on the roles of various crime information systems.

17 CRI2601/1
 ACTIVITY 2.1

Think of crime information management systems that are used by the South African
Police Service (SAPS) in the prevention or reduction of crime. Take a moment to talk to a
friend or a colleague about these systems.
Record your thoughts or findings here:

Match your findings with the crime information systems listed below.
Currently, the SAPS has about 63 active computer systems at its disposal. The systems
range from support and administration to operational and management systems. The
most common crime information systems used are as follows:
Crime Administration System (CAS); Incident Registration Information System (IRIS); Au-
tomated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS); Geographic Information System (GIS);
Business Intelligence System (BIS); Circulation of Wanted Persons and Stolen Property
System; Crime Management Information System; Analyst’s Notebook; the profiling of
suspects; the movement control of suspects; and operational planning and monitoring

68 We are now going to discuss the systems and their role in policing in more detail.

2.2 THE ROLE OF THE CRIME ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM

The CAS is a nationwide computer system that is used by the SAPS to record crime.
69

The main function of the program is to record the type of offence, the place where the
offence took place, the name of the complainant, the name of the suspect(s), if known,
the instrument/weapon used in the commission of the offence and the date and time of
the commission of the offence. The main system is normally located at the client service
centre (CSC) and is linked to the Detective Service and the Crime Intelligence Unit of the
station (Breetzke 2007:12). The CAS also assists the Crime Information Analysis Centre
(CIAC) with information on fluctuations in crime levels.

The CAS is slowly being phased out of the SAPS and is being replaced by a Web-based
70

version called the Integrated Case Docket Management System (ICDMS). The ICDMS
provides the capability to manage and administrate criminal cases, inquests and enquiries
throughout the life cycle of a case, that is, from inception to disposal. Criminologists,
legislators, municipal planners, the media and students of criminal justice use the statistics
for varied research and planning purposes (South African Police Service 2004:38).

71

18
Each crime incident that is recorded is assigned a code that, in turn, assists the police
72

in compiling crime statistics and planning operations. During the early planning of the
program, it was recognised that the differences among criminal codes precluded a mere
aggregation of state statistics to arrive at a national total. To avoid these problems and
to provide nationwide uniformity in crime reporting, the CAS was revamped to ensure
the validity and reliability of statistics.

73 Major benefits of the CAS are as follows:

y Significant reduction in manual register maintenance
y Elimination of duplicate and inconsistent record-keeping
y The ability to keep track of the status of cases
y Facilitation of the availability of records to investigating officers
y Facilitation of supervision by senior officers
y Generation of various reports from time to time

ACTIVITY 2.2

Visit your nearest police client service centre and do the following:
Ask the CAS or ICDMS operator about any latest updates to the system functionalities.
Ask the operator for his/her view on the role and benefit of the system.
Record your findings here:

2.3 THE ROLE OF THE INCIDENT REGISTRATION INFORMA-

TION SYSTEM
The data in IRIS are contributed and maintained by law enforcement agencies (Foster
74

2005:179). In South Africa, IRIS is a function of the SAPS that is utilised to capture all details
about peaceful and unrest-related public protests in the country and the crime prevention
duties that the Public Order Policing (POP) units are involved in. In other countries such as
the United States of America, various law enforcement agencies contribute information to
IRIS through a multilayered network. When an arrest is made, information is supposed to
be entered into IRIS within 24 hours. The role of IRIS is to assist various law enforcement
agencies in monitoring arrestees if they have previous convictions or are wanted for
other crimes.

This system was designed to prevent the duplication of effort between various law
75

enforcement agencies.

19 CRI2601/1
2.4 THE ROLE OF THE AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICA-
TION SYSTEM
ACTIVITY 2.3

AFIS is widely used in the SAPS for the speedy identification of suspects and their possible
conviction.
Write about one or two incidents where a type of AFIS was used in the course of your
duties and where suspects were positively linked with the incidents, and state what
happened to the cases thereafter.

FEEDBACK
You could, for example, have referred to a case of burglary where the police found fingerprints
that led to the arrest of a suspect.

AFIS enables the police to positively identify arrestees through their fingerprints and it provides
them with the ability to compare unidentified fingerprints found at the scene of a crime (latent
prints) with prints of known criminals that are already on file (Hrechak & McHugh 1989:893).

The system is also used by statutorily authorised entities to conduct fingerprint-based pre-
employment criminal history background checks. In South Africa, AFIS was introduced by the
SAPS in 2002. The system identifies fingerprints according to ridge patterns and characteristics
(minutiae). Every finger- or thumbprint has between 25 and 125 minutiae that can aid with
identification.

The system quickly sifts through millions of fingerprints to locate candidates for a possible match.
Depending on the match score of the candidate print, the system will automatically print it,
or put together a rank-ordered list of possible matches for final human examination. Latent
prints are always reviewed by examiners. AFIS produces reliability greater than 99% (Hrechak
& McHugh 1989:893). The next development in fingerprint technology was LiveScan. LiveScan

20
 captures a digital image of a fingerprint and packages the image along with descriptive data
into a nationally standardised electronic format (Hrechak & McHugh 1989:893).

The electronic fingerprint standard allows the SAPS to forward all requests to its Criminal
Record Centre (CRC) for national searches to augment the searches done in the provinces.
LiveScan is a portable unit that can easily be moved to temporary sites as required, such as
roadblocks, major sports events and festivals. LiveScan allows operators to electronically
capture 10 rolled impressions, plain impressions and palm prints. Guided by an easy-to-use
graphical user interface, operators place the individual’s hand or fingers on a camera plate
that scans the prints to produce digital images.

To ensure that images of the highest quality are obtained, a LiveScan unit immediately
identifies any images that need to be captured (Hrechak & McHugh 1989:893). By so doing,
fingerprint and textual data are routed to the fingerprint unit or section for matching and for
the printing of fingerprint forms.

76

Figure 2.1
77 AFIS architecture

2.4.1 Why an automated fingerprint identification system for the SAPS?

The SAPS CRC has been managing a manual fingerprint system of all known convicted
78

criminals since 1925. The SAPS Local Criminal Record Centres have been managing localised
Local Criminal Record Centres. The ever-increasing collection of criminals’ fingerprints led
to various shortcomings and disadvantages of the manual system. These shortcomings
and disadvantages forced the SAPS to investigate the automation of the manual system
(Du Toit 2000), leading to the identification of an automated fingerprint identification
system as a possible solution.

21 CRI2601/1
2.4.2 The impact of AFIS
79 According to Du Toit (2000), AFIS has the following advantages and benefits:
y Improved service delivery to the integrated criminal justice system (ICJS) in respect
of the following:
− awaiting trail prisoners are incarcerated for a shorter period of time
− fewer court cases need to be postponed
− more effective bail opposing
− speedier availability of criminal information
− speedier identification of wanted persons
y Improved service delivery to the community in respect of
− firearm application clearances
− security officers’ clearances
− public driver permits
− pre-employment clearances
− behaviour certificate/police clearances
y National database of crime scene fingerprints: AFIS is one of the first systems to be
used in the SAPS since 1925 and contributes to more criminals being identified.
y Faster response times: AFIS is configured to complete a day’s work in a day’s time (24
hours).
y Increase in accuracy and productivity: AFIS searches minute fingerprint details more
effectively, reduces human error and eliminates the manual classification and searching
of fingerprints.
y Reduced training period: AFIS operators are productive after only two weeks of
training. Training periods for scene-of-crime experts remain unchanged. Electronic
transfer of fingerprints helps to address international crime through agencies such
as the FBI and INTERPOL.

2.5 THE ROLE OF A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

A GIS is a computer system that is used for capturing, managing, integrating, manipulat-
80

ing, analysing and displaying data and that is partially referenced to the Earth (Spencer
& Ratcliffe 2005:38). Therefore, the role of a GIS is to provide the forum within which
crime data can be layered with base maps and other geographic data that represent
the landscape of the area with which the crime data is associated. The base maps could
represent a street network, the homes in a housing estate or buildings and open spaces
in a town centre.

A GIS is a powerful tool that can be used to assist with the management, integration and
81

analysis of a disparate range of data. A GIS on its own may not enable law enforcement
officers to perform all the spatial queries that are possible on crime data, so in some cases
it is necessary to call on other tools to assist with those processes.

82

22
A GIS makes it possible to relate different information in a spatial context and to reach a
83

conclusion about this relationship (Foster 2005:93). Most of the information we have about
the world contains a location reference, placing that information at some point on the
globe. A GIS, therefore, can reveal important new information, which can lead to better
decision-making. A GIS typically represents data in three ways, namely, as an attribute
file, as a spatial object file and as a raster file.

2.5.1 How does a GIS work?

According to Spencer and Ratcliffe (2005:40), a GIS has four components, namely, hardware,
84

software, data and people. The hardware component of a GIS is a computer. Hardware
may also include mobile computing and GPS technology that synchronise data captured
in the field to a central database (Spencer & Ratcliffe 2005:40).

Computers used for a GIS have the standard requirement of an operating system on which
85

software applications can be run. Popular GIS software used for crime mapping includes
ArcView, ArcGIS, MapInfo, GeoMedia and Northgate blue8 (Spencer & Ratcliffe 2005:40).
These desktop software products possess the majority of core GIS functionality, but also
integrate with software extensions that expand functions for analysis and map production.

Data are essential to crime mapping. Without crime data and base maps, a GIS has no
86

crime prevention or reduction application. It is simply a sterile software package awaiting

data (Spencer & Ratcliffe 2005:45). The fourth and most essential component is the user.
People who operate a GIS usually require some form of training. Therefore, for a GIS
to work, it involves bringing together the computer files and data that are to be used,
and possibly editing them, querying against them, linking them, adding new data and
generating a display for output.

2.5.2 What is so special about a GIS?

What do you know about the swampy area at the end of your street? With a GIS you
87

can “point” at a location, an object or an area on the screen and retrieve recorded
information about it from off-screen files (Spencer & Ratcliffe 2005:354). Using scanned
aerial photographs as a visual guide, you can ask a GIS about the geology or hydrology
of the area or even about how close the swamp is to the end of the street. This type of
analysis will allow you to draw conclusions about the environmental sensitivity of the
swamp. Similarly, a GIS can assist the police in finding the exact route to a crime scene.
Therefore, in this instance, a GIS is an important tool in crime prevention.

23 CRI2601/1
2.5.3 The future of geographic information systems
Environmental studies, geography, geology, planning, business marketing and other
88

disciplines have benefitted from GIS tools and methods (Spencer & Ratcliffe 2005:354).
Together with cartography, remote sensing, global positioning systems, photogrammetry
and geography, the application of geographic information systems has evolved into a
discipline with its own research base, known as geographic information sciences. GIS
technology and related technology can help with the analysis of large datasets, allowing a
better understanding of terrestrial processes and human activities with a view to improving
economic vitality and environmental quality. The introduction of geographic information
systems in policing has played a major role in crime prevention and detection. It reduces
time spent searching for stolen vehicles as well as personnel.

2.6 THE ROLE OF A BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE INFORMATION

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Business intelligence is a technological system that is used by law enforcement officers
89

to monitor crime trends and to target recidivist offenders, which results in criminal
activities being better predicted, interpreted and acted upon. Business intelligence leads
to intelligence-led policing. Intelligence-led policing is a business model and a managerial
philosophy where data analysis and crime intelligence are pivotal to an objective decision-
making framework that facilitates crime and problem reduction, disruption and prevention
through both strategic management and effective enforcement strategies that target
prolific and serious offenders. However, in order for intelligence-led policing to take place,
the police need business intelligence solutions for reporting and analysing geographic
information systems for spatial analysis and the Case Administration System. High-level
decisionmakers in law enforcement use a business intelligence system every day to identify
geographic areas that are experiencing increasing rates of particular crimes. They then
launch strategic initiatives to prevent crime (Ratcliffe 2008:4).

2.7 THE ROLE OF THE CIRCULATION OF WANTED PERSONS

AND STOLEN PROPERTY SYSTEM
The system that is used for the circulation of wanted persons and stolen property
90

is commonly known as the Circulation System (CIR) and has different profiles such as the
circulation of vehicles and the circulation of missing and wanted persons. The purpose
of circulating wanted persons and stolen property is to assist law enforcement agencies
with their investigative endeavours. Normally, when a suspect has been identified but
cannot be traced, the suspect’s information is circulated on the SAPS’s “Wanted persons”
list at the CRC. Should such a person be arrested at another place, the CRC will notify the
police at the place where the suspect is wanted.

The Crime Information Management Centre (CIMC) of the SAPS is very helpful in this
91

regard because it is linked to internal and external institutions. The most important
programs in this instance include the Criminal Records Information System, the Individual
and Structure Information System, the Case Administration System, the Firearms Register,

24
the National Traffic Information System, the Population Register, the Movement Control
Centre, BELTEL or telephone numbers, and Netmapping, which is a spider diagram that
links syndicates (South African Police Service 2004:6). The circulation and cancellation of
stolen or recovered vehicles or property are carried out by means of the circulation system
or, if no computers are in use, on form SAPS 433(a). Circulation can be done telephonically
immediately after a theft has been reported. The computer printout slip regarding the
circulation and cancellation is sent to the station where the case is under investigation
(South African Police Service 2004:39).

2.7.1 Government departments

Enquiries regarding wanted persons and stolen property are normally directed through
92

the Criminal Record Centre and such information is disseminated to various government
departments, including the Department of Home Affairs, the Department of Foreign
Affairs, the Department of Transport, the Airports Company of South Africa, Immigration
Services, ports and harbours, border gates and others (South African Police Service 2004:29).

2.7.2 International institutions: INTERPOL

INTERPOL’s activities in relation to international fugitives have been part of its core business
93

since its creation. The organisation circulates electronic diffusions and notices containing
identification details and judicial information about wanted criminals internationally, at
the request of member countries. INTERPOL assists in circulating and tracing suspects or
wanted persons by transmitting fingerprints, photographs and counterfeit documents to
member states in a matter of seconds by means of the X400 MTA and ASF computerised
facilities (www.interpol.int).

INTERPOL created the Fugitive Investigative Service to offer more proactive and systematic
94

assistance to member countries by:

y providing investigative support to member countries in ongoing international fugitive
investigations with a view to locating and arresting wanted persons
y coordinating and enhancing international cooperation in the field of fugitive
investigations
y collecting and disseminating expert knowledge and information on best practices
y conducting and coordinating relevant research and serving as a global point of
reference for fugitive-related information (www.interpol.int)

International notices are the main instruments of international police cooperation. These
95

notices are usually published by the General Secretariat of ICPO-INTERPOL at the request
of a national central bureau (NCB). After publication, these notices are circulated to all
NCBs (www.interpol.int).

96

25 CRI2601/1
The purpose of these notices is to supply the police services of member countries, through
97

their NCBs, with certain information about persons or objects. There are eight major types
of international notices and all INTERPOL offices are familiar with the meaning of each
notice. The seven INTERPOL notices are: red notices, blue notices, green notices, orange
notices, yellow notices, black notices and stolen property notices. Others are modus
operandi (MO) sheets and INTERPOL-United Nations Security Council special notices.

2.8 THE ROLE OF A CRIME MANAGEMENT INFORMATION

SYSTEM
The role of a crime management information system (CMIS) is to enable commanders
98

and other role players to manage crime prevention at various levels and to capture crime
statistics. Experience has shown that when case dockets are taken over from previous
investigators, it is worth the effort to read all the information in the dockets, including
the investigation diaries, and to visit the places where the crimes took place (Barnard,
Cronje, de Klerk, van Zyl & Zinn 2002:272). This is the only way to get acquainted with all
the information and evidence, and it will enable the investigators to identify all similarities,
omissions, peculiarities and contradictions.

In serial cases or cases of enormous magnitude, computer software can be a valuable

99

resource. If all the information of cases is captured on a database, it is possible to identify

similarities, such as names, places, vehicle registration numbers, descriptions and telephone
numbers (Barnard et al 2002:272). Computer software can also be used to draw up flow
charts to illustrate a sequence of events and links between numbers, persons and events.
This process can also assist prosecutors during trials by providing a summary of all the
relevant evidence and helping to ensure that the witnesses and suspects are cross-
examined on all the facts.

2.9 THE ROLE OF ANALYST’S NOTEBOOK

Analyst’s Notebook is a powerful software package that provides a range of visualisation
100

and analysis tools to help explore and interpret the information collected during an
investigation. The police use Analyst’s Notebook to visualise the information collected
for the Operational Intelligence System (OIS), which normally runs on an Oracle database.
Using iConnect, i2’s integration software that connects existing databases directly to
Analyst’s Notebook, police analysts and intelligence officials are able to interrogate and
research the OIS and to analyse this information. This new law enforcement application
helps the police to predict crime activities and provides key information to police officials
responding to calls.

Most police agencies use products such as WebFOCUS and Information Builders as
101

mapping tools to enable predictive analysis of criminal activity in a community. The

Business Intelligence technology also allows analysts to provide responding police officials
with important details, including the history of criminal activity at a particular address
and in surrounding areas, background information on the residents and information on
people at the scene who have first-hand knowledge about the alleged crime (http://www.

26
i2. co. uk). Using new rules and adopting novel technologies enables the police to operate
efficiently and effectively, within unrealistic budgets. It also puts the police closer to
overcoming the daunting challenges they face in their quest to beat crime.

2.10 THE ROLE OF THE PROFILING OF SUSPECTS

In criminal investigations, the role of profiling is to help the police outline or speculate
102

on characteristics of a particular criminal. There are various forms of criminal/suspect

profiling, the most common being behavioural profiling, psychological profiling and
geographic profiling. Behavioural profiling and psychological profiling are methods of
theorising about a serial criminal’s behaviour and psychological characteristics based
on an analysis of evidence from crimes committed and related facts (Osbourne 2003:24).

The hypotheses developed in this type of profiling helps police investigators to narrow
103

their search for suspects. Behavioural profiling and psychological profiling have primarily
been used for serial murderers and rapists, but future research in this field should help
crime analysts to address the challenge of identifying possible serial robbers and burglars,
too (Osbourne 2003:24). Geographic profiling is a specialised investigative tool that was
developed to analyse crime site information to determine the most probable area of
offender residence.

Serial murders and rapes are the most commonly geographically profiled crimes, but
104

other serial crimes such as robberies and arson may also be profiled using this technique.
The methodology of criminal geographic targeting is based on a patented algorithm that
produces information on the likelihood that an offender resides within an area based on an
analysis of crime site coordinates and other investigative information (Osbourne 2003:25).

Geographic profiling is not a hands-on tool available to crime analysts to use at this time.
105

However, specially trained individuals are available to help investigators narrow their
search for serial criminals by providing geographic profiling on a consultancy basis.

Criminal profiling is used mostly by behavioural scientists and police to narrow down
106

investigations to those suspects who possess certain behavioural and personality features
that are revealed by the way the crimes were committed. Therefore, the primary goal
of criminal profiling is to aid the police in limiting and refining their suspect list so they
can direct their resources where they might do the most good. Profiling, in itself, does
not identify a specific suspect, that is, it does not reveal a certain individual or give an
individual’s address or a phone number (Osbourne 2003:25). Instead, profilers sketch a
general biographical description of the most likely type of unknown suspect. Another
key use of a profile is, when necessary, to go proactive, which means letting the public
become partners in solving crime. An unknown suspect in a criminal investigation may
have displayed some sort of odd behaviour towards those close to him that will indicate
his involvement with the crime. Getting the public and, hopefully, those people to be
aware of what they have seen, telling them how to interpret it and suggesting to them
to come forward, may solve the case.

27 CRI2601/1
 2.11 THE ROLE OF MOVEMENT CONTROL OF SUSPECTS
The SAPS is responsible for the control of the legal and illegal cross-border movement
107

of all persons and goods at all ports of entry, as assigned to it by law. The Department
of Home Affairs controls the Home Affairs National Identification System, which is linked
to the Movement Control System (MCS) and the Enhanced Movement Control System
(EMCS). These systems are interfaced with the SAPS’s Circulation System. Both the EMCS
and the MCS have a database of all circulated, missing and wanted persons, as well as
stolen and robbed vehicles. The MCS and the EMCS monitor the movement of wanted/
missing persons and circulated stolen/robbed vehicles at the country’s ports of entry.
INTERPOL plays an important role in movement control of suspects by placing yellow
notices on the internet and blacklisting suspects along the borders, ports of entry and
airports. The most common movement control systems within the SAPS are INTERPOL
notices and border blacklisting. These systems are able to link a suspect who is about
to skip the country through his/her personal particulars or the particulars of a vehicle
that was stolen or reported to have been used by the suspect. Below is an excerpt from
a media statement issued by the SAPS regarding such a suspect:
The South African Police Service, through the help of the INTERPOL office in
108

Pretoria, successfully extradited a fugitive on Wednesday who was wanted for

a murder he had allegedly committed in Uganda.

The Department of Justice from Uganda requested via INTERPOL the arrest of
109

Patrick Kasaija aka Patrick Agaba, who was believed to be in the Johannesburg
area, Gauteng.

On 7 February 2018 in Uganda, a victim was kidnapped by unknown persons

110

while on her way home from work. The culprits telephoned her family, demanding
a ransom of one million dollars. The victim’s family paid some of the money but
their daughter was not returned.

On 26 February 2018, the victim’s mutilated body was recovered dumped along a
111

road. The Ugandan authority has gathered sufficient evidence which incriminates
Mr Patrick Kasaija in the kidnapping and murder of the victim.

On the 7th March 2018 the fugitive, Mr Patrick Kasaija, was arrested by members
112

of INTERPOL, the Crime Intelligence Unit and the National Investigation Unit
at his residential address in Midrand. (https://www.saps.gov.za/newsroom/
msspeechdetail.php?nid=20487)

28
 2.12 THE ROLE OF OPERATIONAL PLANNING AND
MONITORING (OPAM)
Police operational planning is a process whereby all the information gathered from
113

various sources of police information is interpreted in order to come up with strategies

to prevent crime or future disorder. It is utilised to register operations and day-to-day
activities at police stations and to capture successes. The role of operational planning is
to ensure that a single document (plan) is drafted that seeks to coordinate and guide the
various role players in crime prevention. The purpose of such a plan, therefore, is to set
out strategic priorities for law enforcement agencies as a whole, along with the indicators
against which the service rendered will be judged (Sampson 2006:10).

Based on information obtained from systems and programs such as the CAS, IRIS, AFIS,
114

the GIS, the Business Intelligence System, the Circulation of Wanted Persons and Stolen
Property System, the Crime Management Information System, Analyst’s Notebook, the
profiling of suspects, the movement control of suspects, and operational planning and
monitoring, the police are expected to draw up plans covering crimes such as murder,
rape, cash-in-transit heists, armed robbery, human trafficking and drug trafficking. Good
operational planning takes account of interagency cooperation, problem solving and
both victim-centred and offender-centred approaches (Mclaughlin & Muncie 2001:309).

Monitoring is a process where planners scrutinise their plans in order to ensure that those
115

plans have achieved what they were meant for and, if not, where the police have gone
wrong. This is the analysis stage of planning. (For more information, consult study unit
4 of this study guide.)

ACTIVITY 2.4

(1) Select two or more of the crime information systems presented above and explain
how they have helped you in preventing or combating crime.

29 CRI2601/1
 (2) Explain the difference in roles played by a BIS and a GIS in the prevention and com-
bating of crime

FEEDBACK
See if you can remember a few cases where some of the crime information systems presented
above were used by the SAPS in preventing and combating crime.

Compare these cases with your own examples above.

2.13 CONCLUSION
In order to win the fight against crime, law enforcement agencies need to make use of
116

technology. Police technology is a tool that assists law enforcement agencies with the
prevention, combating and investigation of crime. In addition to using technology, police
officials also gather information. Information from people or about people is not the only
kind of information police officials collect. The collection and analysis of evidence are
also forms of information gathering. Law enforcement agencies use various computer
programs and, therefore, law enforcement officers must be familiar with the roles of such
programs in the prevention and combating of crime.

30
LIST OF REFERENCES

Barnard, J, Cronje, D, De Klerk, M, Van Zyl, M & Zinn, R. 2002. Investigation of crime II: study
guide for OVM241ZE. Florida: Unisa.
Breetzke, GD. 2007. Geographical information systems (GIS) and policing in South Africa.
Department of Geography, Geo Informatics and Meteorology. Pretoria: University
of Pretoria.
Du Toit, PJL. 2000. PowerPoint presentation by the Assistant Commissioner and the Head
of the SAPS Criminal Record Centre, SAPS Head Office, Pretoria.
Foster, RE. 2005. Police technology. Pearston, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hrechak, AK & McHugh, JA. 1989. Automated fingerprint recognition using structural matching.
New Jersey: Institute of Technology.
McLaughlin, E & Muncie, J. 2001. Controlling crime. 2nd edition. London: Sage.
Osbourne, DA. 2003. Introduction to crime analysis. London: The Haworth Press.
Ratcliffe, JH. 2008. Intelligence-led policing. Cullompton, Devon: Willan Publishing.
Sampson, F. 2006. Blackstone’s police manual volume 4: general police duties. New York:
Oxford University Press.
South African Police Service. 2004. Tracing techniques. SAPS manual: Detective Learning
Programme. SAPS Training Division.
Spencer, C & Ratcliffe, J. 2005. GIS and crime mapping. London: Wiley.

31 CRI2601/1
Study unit 3
Analysis of crime information

CONTENTS

Learning outcomes
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The definition of crime analysis
3.3 The importance of analysing crime
3.4 Types of crime analysis
3.5 Challenges of crime analysis
3.6 Conclusion
List of references

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this study unit, you should be able to:

− define the term “crime analysis”
− describe the importance of crime analysis
− use different types of crime analysis
− evaluate challenges facing the crime analysis practice

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Crime analysis plays an important role in enabling the police to fulfil their constitutional
117

mandate of maintaining law and order in the country. For the police to be effective and
efficient, they have to understand the value and the significance of crime analysis, the
different types of crime analysis and the challenges to crime analysis.

To provide a broad understanding of information analysis in policing, this study unit

118

deals with the definition of crime analysis, the importance of crime analysis in policing,
the various types of crime analysis and the challenges associated with crime analysis in
policing. It is through a proper understanding of these variables that both proactive and
reactive policing can take full advantage of crime analysis in the fight against crime.

32
3.2 THE DEFINITION OF CRIME ANALYSIS
ACTIVITY 3.1

How would you define crime analysis? Compare your definition with the one that follows.

FEEDBACK
Use any other sources like library books and articles to formulate a definition.

The word “crime analysis” has been used and understood differently by different police
departments. Some police departments understand crime analysis as the mapping of crime
and the production of crime statistics, while others understand it as the analysis of crime
using police reports and suspects’ information to assist investigators in identifying offenders
(Osborne & Wernicke 2003:1).

According to Osborne and Wernicke (2003:1), crime analysis is the fragmentation of actions that
were used in the commission of crime in order to identify a unique pattern. Gottlieb, Arenberg
and Singh (1994:13) define crime analysis as systematic and analytical processes focused on
obtaining pertinent information on crime patterns and trends in order to assist police officers
in planning and deploying resources for the prevention and suppression of criminal activities.
It is within this context, therefore, that crime analysis is understood as an “autopsy” that will
reveal the factors that led to the commission of crime in order to enhance crime prediction
capabilities that could lead to the development of proactive approaches to crime prevention
(Vellanni & Nahoun 2001:2).

Osborne and Wernicke (2003:1) warn about the tendency of equating crime analysts with
crime statisticians simply because crime statistics are used to analyse crime. Crime statistics
represent only one of the tools that can be used in an attempt to uncover crime patterns. Crime
analysis is much broader than crime statistics, as will become apparent in the discussion of
different types of crime analysis in this unit.

33 CRI2601/1
3.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF ANALYSING CRIME
ACTIVITY 3.2

Following from the definition provided above, why is it important for the SAPS to conduct
crime analysis?

FEEDBACK
From the above-mentioned definitions, it is clear that crime analysis is aimed at assisting
the police in preventing and suppressing criminal activities. Secondly, in instances where the
police have failed to prevent and suppress such activities, crime analysis is aimed at assisting
the crime investigation units in apprehending offenders.

Osborne and Wernicke (2003:1) emphasise that “the objective of crime analysis is to find
meaningful information in vast amounts of data and disseminate this information to officers
and investigators in the field to assist in their efforts to apprehend criminals and suppress
criminal activities.”

The objective of crime analysis is to turn data into meaningful information that will reveal
crime series, patterns and trends (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:33). Crime analysis is crucial for
the effective and efficient functioning of any police department. According to Osborne and
Wernicke (2003:4), crime analysis provides the police with information that
y enables them to maximise the use of police resources by directing them to where the need is
y provides an indication of crime trends and patterns, as well as the modus operandi used
in crimes that have been committed
y enables them to devise effective proactive and reactive measures of dealing with crime

The nature and the sophistication of crimes committed make it critical for the police to analyse
crime.

34
 3.4 TYPES OF CRIME ANALYSIS
Crime is analysed in various ways, depending on the objective to be achieved. Various
119

types of crime analysis are discussed below, focusing on their objectives and benefits
within the broader parameters of managing crime.

3.4.1 Tactical crime analysis

According to Osborne and Wernicke (2003:5), tactical crime analysis is the process of
120

analysing data with the aim of developing information that will indicate where, when
and how crime is committed, with the objective of assisting the police in identifying
and understanding specific and immediate crime problems. It encompasses the whole
range of pattern detection analysis, linkage analysis for suspect–crime correlations, target
profiling, and offender movement patterns (Goldsmith McGuire, Mollenkopf & Ross 2000:5).
In order to predict possible future crime trends, a tactical crime analyst has to detect
current patterns of criminal activities (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:5). According to Osborne
and Wernicke (2003:5), a crime pattern is the repeated similarities that give a committed
crime a certain design. They mention that although crime patterns are generally defined
in terms of geographic area, crime patterns could transcend geographic areas. Pattern
detection occurs when common attributes, such as the type of crime committed, the
modus operandi and the type of weapon used, are similar in crimes that are reported
within a short period of time.

Linkage analysis involves matching information that has been obtained from a crime
121

scene, such as the modus operandi and the physical description, with that stored in the
suspect data bank in an attempt to establish a connection between the suspect and
the committed crime (Goldsmith et al 2000:6). The purpose of linkage is to narrow the
police search and to increase the possibility of apprehending the suspect.

Target profiling is the process of identifying the areas where people are mostly victimised.
122

These are normally referred to as hot spots. A hot spot is an area where the occurrence
of crime is so frequent that it has become highly predictable. A geographic information
system plays a very important role in mapping such hot spots (Goldsmith et al 2000:6).

A crime series refers to a pattern of crimes that makes it probable that the crimes
123

were committed by the same person (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:5). According to Osborne
and Wernicke (2003:5), a crime series is constituted by several consecutive incidents that
match a suspect’s description and modus operandi. Identifying a crime series as early as
possible through the development of general suspect and victim profiles based on the
data collected is the primary objective of tactical crime analysis (Osborne & Wernicke
2003:5). A classic example of tactical crime analysis would be the identification of a series
as follows:
The rape and murder of young women who visit a recreational park in
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Johannesburg, where the profile of the suspect and the modus operandi used
are the same.

125

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Tactical analysis promotes proactive policing in that a focused approach can be adopted,
126

for example, patrols can be intensified in certain areas. Through aggressive suspect and
victim targeting, as well as surveillance, tactical analysis also promotes reactive policing
in respect of the apprehension of suspects (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:6).

ACTIVITY 3.3

(1) Give two examples of tactical crime analysis in your organisation.

(2) Indicate their benefit to the prevention and combating of crime.

3.4.2 Strategic crime analysis

Strategic crime analysis involves analysing the increase or decrease of crime frequencies in
127

a specific jurisdiction over a long period of time (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:7). According
to Goldsmith et al (2000:5), the main difference between strategic and tactical crime
analysis is the duration of the data. Strategic analysis deals with data that have been
collected over a year, while tactical analysis deals with data that have been collected over
several days. An example of strategic analysis could be the study of the increase in bank
robberies during festive seasons. Tilley (2002:1) states that crime analysis

y can be used to identify the concentration of crime, thus providing the police with an
opportunity to develop strategies of dealing with it

36
y helps the police to find the most efficient, effective and equitable means of preventing
crime
y helps the police to predict future crime problems so that they can develop pre-emptive
strategies

ACTIVITY 3.4

(1) Give two examples of strategic crime analysis in your organisation.

(2) Indicate their benefit to the prevention and combating of crime.

3.4.3 Administrative crime analysis

Administrative crime analysis involves monitoring and compiling crime statistics. It provides
128

police managers with information that helps them to make decisions on the allocation
of resources and provides the community with information on the criminal tendencies
within their neighbourhoods (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:8). Through administrative crime
analysis, crime can be compared from station to station and province to province. Crime
levels of the current year can also be compared with crime levels of the previous year
(Osborne & Wernicke 2003:9). According to Osborne and Wernicke (2003:9), this comparison
is referred to as benchmarking.

Even though tactical crime analysis, strategic crime analysis and administrative crime
129

analysis are often referred to as the three types of crime analysis, investigative crime
analysis, intelligence analysis and operational analysis are also included in the current
field of crime analysis (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:9).

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 ACTIVITY 3.5

(1) Give two examples of administrative crime analysis in your organisation.

(2) Indicate their benefit to the prevention and combating of crime.

3.4.4 Investigative crime analysis

Investigative crime analysis involves using the information available to the analyst to
130

profile suspects and victims during the investigation of crime (Osborne & Wernicke
2003:9). The investigative crime analyst will, among other things, interview investigators
to obtain information on the type of persons who commit certain crimes within specific
jurisdictions and conduct site visits of the crime scenes to do observations (Osborne &
Wernicke 2003:9).

38
 ACTIVITY 3.6

(1) Give two examples of investigative crime analysis in your organisation.

(2) Indicate their benefit to the prevention and combating of crime.

3.4.5 Intelligence analysis

Intelligence analysis supports specific investigations through the analysis of information
131

(Osborne & Wernicke 2003: 10). The basic difference between crime analysis and intelligence
analysis is that intelligence analysis usually starts with an identified problem, for example,
gangsterism. Information relating to gangsters is then identified, gathered, analysed and
disseminated to investigators. Crime analysis, on the other hand, usually starts with the
discovery of particular crime problems, after which the nature and the magnitude of
these crimes are identified (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:10).

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 ACTIVITY 3.7

(1) Give two examples of intelligence analysis in your organisation.

(2) Indicate their benefit to the prevention and combating of crime.

3.4.6 Operation analysis

Operation analysis deals with the operational methods of police departments, such as the
132

allocation of resources and the deployment of manpower (Osborne & Wernicke 2003:10).
Operational analysts normally provide assistance during the upgrading or degrading of
a police station by determining
y whether there has been an increase or a decrease in the population of the station
precinct
y the number of service calls received by the station
y response times

40
ACTIVITY 3.8

(1) Give two examples of operation analysis in your organisation.

(2) Indicate their benefit to the prevention and combating of crime.

FEEDBACK: ACTIVITIES 3.3–3.8

For more information, you can visit the SAPS Crime Intelligence Unit. They can provide you
with information on weekly crime analyses conducted at police station level.

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 3.5 CHALLENGES OF CRIME ANALYSIS
Although crime analysis plays a very important role in improving the effectiveness and
133

efficiency of policing, it is not immune from certain challenges, such as the following
(Osborne & Wernicke 2003:71):
y It goes against the traditional reactive approach to policing, thus making it not so
popular among traditional police officials.
y It is more reflective than action oriented. Police officials have been conditioned by the
demand to respond to emergency calls to take action rather than to study or reflect
about the nature of problems.
y It often points out more problems than solutions.

The lack of good-quality information in many police departments that struggle with
134

information technology problems poses a serious challenge to information integrity.

The absence of accurate geospatial data in relation to time and space also hampers the
effective analysis of crime in some rural areas, specifically in informal settlements.

ACTIVITY 3.9

(1) Define crime analysis. Do not copy the previous definition and paste it here. Try
to come up with fresh ideas where possible.

(2) Some areas are regarded as so-called hot spots. What type of analysis is conducted
that results in marking an area as a hot spot? Give reasons for your answer.

42
 FEEDBACK
Consult other sources, such as books, articles or even theses or dissertations, for definitions of
crime analysis. The Crime Intelligence Unit of the SAPS could also provide you with information
on crime analysis.

3.6 CONCLUSION
Modern policing has to make provision for the benefits of crime analysis to the effectiveness
135

and efficiency of policing. The importance of crime analysis has to be emphasised in

policing, taking into account broad parameters of crime information management. It
has to be realised that the accurate prediction of criminal activities, as well as the speedy
resolution of crime, could be heavily influenced by proper analysis that is based on accurate
information that has been filtered.

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LIST OF REFERENCES

Goldsmith, V, McGuire, PG, Mollenkopf, JH & Ross, TA. 2000. Analysing crime patterns:
frontiers of practice. London: Sage.
Gottlieb, S L, Arenberg, S & Singh, R. 1994. Crime analysis: from first report to final arrest.
Montclair: Alpha.
Osborne, D & Wernicke, S. 2003. Introduction to crime analysis: basic resources for criminal
justice practice. New York: Haworth Press.
Tilley, N. 2000. Analysis for crime prevention: crime prevention studies volume 13. Monsey:
Criminal Justice Press.
Vellani, KH & Nahoun, J. 2001. Applied crime analysis. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.

44
Study unit 4
The planning of crime prevention operations using
information gathered from various sources

CONTENTS

Learning outcomes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Benefits of planning crime prevention operations
4.3 Basic requirements of planning crime prevention operations
4.4 Crime pattern analysis
4.5 Modus operandi analysis
4.6 The use of a Hot spot matrix in crime reduction
4.7 The role of the Sara model in the planning of crime prevention operations
4.8 Conclusion
List of references

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

− identify basic requirements of planning crime prevention operations
− plan crime prevention operations using information obtained from crime pattern
analysis systems/tools
− plan crime prevention operations using information obtained from modus operandi
tools
− use a hot spot matrix to plan crime prevention operations
− plan crime prevention operations using the SARA model

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The traditional response to rising crime has been to devote more resources to law
136

enforcement and to introduce tougher penalties in the hope of deterring offenders

from committing further crimes. However, in recent years, the so-called offender-based
strategies have become less prominent because “get-tough” policies involving harsher
penalties did not have the desired results.

137

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For this reason, the focus in crime prevention policy has shifted from the actions and
138

motives of offenders to the use of technology in order to plan operations. For a crime
to occur, both an opportunity and a motive are needed. It follows that if a crime is to be
prevented, both the opportunity and the motive must be removed or addressed. The
approach that needs to be adopted depends on the specific crime under consideration,
as well as circumstances peculiar to the site where it occurs.

The combating of crime has been tackled in various ways throughout the world. Some
139

strategies have been more successful than others. Given that the process of formulating
a National Crime Prevention Strategy (NCPS) is high on South Africa’s agenda, the use of
various sources of information, including technology, in crime prevention should not be
ignored. In order to use limited resources effectively, the nature and extent of the crime
problem must first be established.

Law enforcement agencies use various sources of information in order to plan crime
140

prevention operations. In South Africa, the most common sources of information used
by police agencies include the following: the Crime Administration System, the Incident
Registration Information System, the Automated Fingerprint Identification System, the
Geographic Information System, the Business Intelligence System, the Circulation of
Wanted Persons and Stolen Property System, the Crime Management Information System,
Analyst’s Notebook, the profiling of suspects, the movement control of suspects, and
operational planning and monitoring. The aim of this study unit is to demonstrate how
the police apply various sources to plan crime prevention operations.

4.2 BENEFITS OF PLANNING CRIME PREVENTION

OPERATIONS
The first benefit of planning crime prevention operations is the ability to show relationships
141

between crime and causal factors. These relationship factors may be spatial in nature, in
other words, crime may be resulting from its proximity to a location. In addition to spatial
relationships, crimes could be related by time, certain aspects of the victims, certain
aspects about the offenders, modus operandi, and so forth.

According to Foster (2005:245), planning crime prevention operations also promotes

142

information integration and cooperation among different police agencies and among
the police and other government agencies. Crime prevention planning can also
enhance communication within the police service. Crime prevention planning is increasingly
used to deploy more police personnel in areas that experience high crime rates. However,
this is a short-term solution (Adams 1990:139). Usually, the deployment of more police
officials in specific areas stops crime from occurring in those areas. Consequently, crime
is displaced elsewhere. This displacement can be either spatial or temporal. Therefore,
whenever crime prevention plans are drawn up, all relevant information from various
sources must be considered.

46
 4.3 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF PLANNING CRIME PREVENTION
OPERATIONS
ACTIVITY 4.1

Take a step back to unit 2 of this study guide. Browse through the section on the role of
a GIS in helping with the prevention and reduction of crime. In a line or two, describe the
role of a GIS is in crime prevention before you continue with this section.
The role of a GIS:

FEEDBACK
Refer to study unit 2 (section 2.6).

One of the most important requirements for planning crime prevention operations is crime
mapping. Crime mapping is the generation of crime maps from crime information or data
collected from various sources and processed by using some of the information systems dis-
cussed in study unit 2. In addition to crime mapping, one also needs mapping data. Mapping
data are generated by geographic information system technology, which was discussed in
detail earlier. In other words, you need geographic analysis technology such as a GIS, as well
as statistical information from crime registers or databases such as IRIS.

As a form of self-reflection, think of examples of real-life/simulated cases to further elucidate

the above discussion.

4.4 CRIME PATTERN ANALYSIS

Crime pattern analysis is the function of a crime intelligence unit. After an analysis has
143

been done, all relevant information is brought to the operations commander so that a final
operational plan can be drawn up. Crime pattern analysis is a process where all available
crime data from external and internal sources are analysed in order to:
y identify possible suspects for a particular crime
y list crimes that have a common offender
y identify crime trends and potential targets
y prepare crime maps by type and location of crime, or by residences of known offenders
(Osterberg & Ward 1992:282)

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The above aspects need to be taken into account when a crime prevention operation
144

is drawn up. The following is a typical example of a case where the police caught the
suspect using crime pattern analysis:

Cape Town: – Sea Point Police arrested the “Hobo Bandit” and a second man in
connection with three bank robberies in Athlone. Kirby Dean Guyette, 52, a transient,
was arrested on Thursday night at First and Hickory Streets after members of the
Crime Combating Unit spotted a green van that had been described as the getaway
car in the robberies. Another man, Jack Paine, 52, of Santa Ana, was also arrested. He
is believed to be Guyette’s accomplice.
“This is an excellent example of modern-day technology coupled with good old-
fashioned police work. The police used crime pattern analysis in the neighbourhoods
with information they were given by the crime analysis unit.”
Guyette is believed to have robbed the Bank of America near 17th Street and Tustin
Avenue on January 22 and returned to the same bank three days later. That time, bank
employees recognised him and told him to leave. The most recent robbery occurred
on Monday, January 28 at Mutual Branch in the 26000 block of Portola Parkway in
Cape Town.

4.5 MODUS OPERANDI ANALYSIS

The identification of a suspect in a particular crime is sometimes accomplished by
146

examining how the crime was committed. The analysis of modus operandi is a process
that seeks to analyse the ingredients of a crime according to a given formula, and then,
by systematic comparison with analyses of other crimes, to establish the identity of the
criminal (Osterberg & Ward 1992:282). It is very important that modus operandi is properly
arranged in terms of files and type of crime committed. Through this means, it can be
determined whether any feature, pattern or trademark distinguishes the crime scene
evidence or the behaviour of the perpetrator.

Osterberg and Ward (1992:282) remark that the following information will be sought when
147

modus operandi is analysed: the type of crime; when and where the crime was committed
(time, day of the week and location); and the type of property targeted or persons
victimised. Modus operandi analysis is also a function of the Crime Intelligence Unit.
However, it is very important that when operations are planned, this information is made
available to the overall commander.

The following news report indicates how modus operandi analysis as a tool was used by
148

the police to arrest a property hijacking kingpin in Gauteng:

Johannesburg’s “most wanted property hijacker” and his two alleged accomplices,
149

implicated in eight cases of property hijacking in the city, have been arrested, City of
Johannesburg mayor Herman Mashaba said on Saturday.

48
… “It is alleged that this kingpin approached unsuspecting tenants residing in properties
150

around Joburg and introduced himself as an investigator. He would then state that the
true owners of the properties were hijackers and that the tenants should not co-operate
with them. Further, he would instruct the tenants not to pay any rent to the owners but
to him instead.”

The same modus operandi was used earlier this year when the alleged kingpin and his
151

co-accused attempted to hijack a building in Jeppestown. The owners of the property

informed the city’s group forensic and investigation services (GFIS) unit, which roped
in the Hawks and successfully handed back the property, which was hijacked for a day,
Mashaba said.

… It was also alleged that in the past, the alleged kingpin had also used the services of
152

the Johannesburg Metropolitan Police Department (JMPD) to be escorted to properties

he wanted to hijack, under the pretence that he was working closely with the city in
investigating hijacked buildings.

The GFIS, working together with law enforcement agencies, such as the South African
153

Police Service (SAPS), was at an advanced stage of investigating a number of cases in

which the alleged kingpin was implicated.

“The kingpin has been convicted of fraud before and was also found guilty of impersonating
154

a police officer; he has a 157 page criminal profile. It is alleged that he has been operating
throughout the country and has criminal cases in Mpumalanga, Northern Cape, and in
the Western Cape.”

155 (African News Agency, 30 December 2017)

4.6 THE USE OF A HOT SPOT MATRIX IN CRIME REDUCTION

The use of crime hot spots to determine policing and crime prevention strategies or plans
156

has grown in recent years. Crime hot spots are areas of high crime and have an appeal
to both crime prevention practitioners and police managers. Hot spots allow local law
enforcement agencies to determine the areas of greatest need. Similarly, a considerable
shift has occurred toward greater use of hot spots as foundations for problem-oriented
policing (Millie & Das 2008:125).

Law enforcement managers use both temporal and spatial hot spots of crime patterns
157

in order to better utilise their resources at the most appropriate times. Information on
crime hot spots is found in GIS crime maps. Such information must be available when
crime prevention operations are drawn up (McLaughlin & Muncie 2001:305). A well-
considered crime prevention operation is based on an objective assessment of crime hot
spots, combined with an objective choice of crime reduction strategy.

158

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The following is an example of a case where the police used a hot spot matrix to arrest
159

criminals:

Area law enforcement agencies arrested during the past week 70 known and suspected
gang members wanted in connection with crimes ranging from public intoxication
to murder.
From August 23 through to September 1, teams of officers working 10-hour shifts
fanned out through the city in search of gang members with active local and national
warrants. The police used a hot spot matrix to deal with the situation. “This roundup
is a response to several recent high-profile, gang-related crimes,” Captain Todd Green
said. “It was a big operation.”
Colonel Smith said the department is using every legal means possible to disrupt
gang operations and to put suspected gang members in jail. For this roundup, officers
researched the gang unit database, a list of all known and suspected gang members
in the area.
Combining resources in and out of the police department helped to create a response
force that could go out and target specific gangs terrorising neighbourhoods, Smith
said.
“Instead of citizens having to look both ways and worry about gang violence, we want
gang members to look both ways and wonder if we are waiting for them around the
corner,” Smith said.
When word spread about the roundup, one suspected gang member turned himself
in to police instead of waiting to be arrested, Green said.
In addition to the 70 arrests, officers identified 15 suspected gang members with
active warrants. Officers are in the process of having these warrants formally served.
Officers also discovered that two suspected gang members with active warrants were
deceased.
160 (Mail & Guardian, 26 January 2009)

4.7 THE ROLE OF THE SARA MODEL IN THE PLANNING OF

CRIME PREVENTION OPERATIONS
A commonly used problem-solving method is the scanning, analysis, response and
162

assessment (SARA) model. Although SARA can be used as a guiding process for problem
solving or police planning, it would be wise not to see it as the answer to everything
since it can be limited in its effectiveness if it is employed in too mechanistic a fashion.
In order to use the model effectively, the police are expected to use information from
various sources, including the CAS, the ICDMS, IRIS and the GIS, to mention a few. The
elements of the SARA model are discussed below.

50
4.7.1 Scanning
163 Scanning is used as a planning tool in order to:
y identify recurring problems of concern to the public and the police
y identify the consequences of the problems for the community and the police and to
prioritise those problems
y develop broad goals
y confirm that the problems exist
y determine how frequently the problems occur and for how long they have been
taking place
y select problems for closer examination

4.7.2 Analysis
Analysis, as the second leg of the SARA model, is meant to assist the police with the
164

following:
y Identifying and understanding the events and conditions that precede and accompany
a problem.
y Identifying relevant data to be collected.
y Researching what is known about the problem type.
y Taking inventory of how the problem is currently addressed and the strengths and
limitations of the current response.
y Narrowing the scope of the problem as specifically as possible.
y Identifying a variety of resources that may be of assistance in developing a deeper
understanding of the problem.
y Developing a working hypothesis about why the problem is occurring.

4.7.3 Response
Response is aimed at dealing with a problem. This stage can also involve carrying out
165

the operation, which involves the following:

y Brainstorming new interventions.
y Finding out what other communities with similar problems have done.
y Choosing among the alternative interventions.
y Outlining a response plan.
y Identifying responsible parties.
y Stating the specific objectives for the response plan and carrying out the planned
activities.

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4.7.4 Assessment
After the plan or an operation has been carried out, it is vital that the police do an assessment
166

in order to determine whether the plan was implemented (a process evaluation). This
step also assists the police in determining whether broad goals and specific objectives
were attained, identifying any new strategies needed to augment the original plan and
conducting ongoing assessment to ensure continued effectiveness.

The following is an example of a case where all four steps of the SARA model were used
167

to arrest a smash-and-grab gang in Pretoria:

For two months the Pretoria Central Police have been gathering information about the
smash-and-grab gang operating on the corner of Pretorius and Lilian Ngoyi Streets.
The scanning process revealed that the smash-and-grab robberies were committed
by a gang of five black males posing as window washers. This led their victims to
believe that they were innocent poverty-stricken boys. Further investigation by the
Crime Intelligence Unit indicated that the window washers targeted cellphones, which
were then sold to foreign nationals operating pawn shops. After a thorough analysis,
police found that the gang was connected to a similar gang operating at Sunny Park
along Park Street. On Friday, 24 January 2009, the Pretoria Central Police together
with their Tshwane Metro Police Services counterparts responded by conducting two
operations that took place simultaneously, thus netting all 10 gang members. The
station commissioner indicated at the monthly assessment and debriefing session
that the operation had been successful.

ACTIVITY 4.1

(1) Discuss the role of a GIS and crime mapping in planning for crime prevention
operations.

(2) Explain the role of the modus operandi analysis tool in planning crime prevention
operations.

52
(3) How does the crime pattern analysis tool assist in planning crime prevention operations?

(4) Which crime information system discussed in study unit 2 generates information on
spatial and temporal hot spots? How?

(5) Tell us of two hot spots identified in your area of operation and which crime information
system was used in their identification. How did you plan to prevent or reduce
recurrences?

(6) Take one incident where the SARA model (or something similar) was applied in
planning a crime prevention operation. Share your experience below.

53 CRI2601/1
 FEEDBACK
You may have to go back to study unit 2 for information on a GIS and other information sys-
tems that are used to prevent and combat crime. Combining the information in study unit 2
and the information in this unit will help you to complete this activity.

4.8 CONCLUSION
The police and other law enforcement agencies gather information for various reasons,
169

such as the planning of crime prevention operations and the investigation of crime.
Information from people or about people is not the only kind of information police officials
collect. The collection and analysis of evidence are also forms of information gathering.
Because so much of the job of the police involves the collection, transmission, retention
and organisation of information, all these functions must be performed accurately,
thus ensuring that flawless crime prevention operations can be planned. There is no
single computer program that can be used for this purpose. It is very important that all
available programs be used in order to facilitate the planning process.

54
LIST OF REFERENCES

Adams, TF. 1990. Police field operations. 2nd edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
African News Agency (ANA). 2017. Joburg property hijacking kingpin and two accomplices
arrested. 30 December.
Foster, RE. 2005. Police technology. Pearston, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mail & Guardian, 26 January 2009.
McLaughlin, E & Muncie, J. 2001. Controlling crime. 2nd edition. London: Sage.
Millie, A & Das, DK. 2008. Contemporary issues in law enforcement and policing. New York:
CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group.
Osterberg, JW & Ward, RH. 1992. Criminal investigation: A method for reconstructing the
past. Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson.

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