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Virtual machine
In computing, a virtual machine (VM) is the virtualization or emulation of a
computer system. Virtual machines are based on computer architectures and
provide the functionality of a physical computer. Their implementations may
involve specialized hardware, software, or a combination of the two. Virtual
machines differ and are organized by their function, shown here:
System virtual machines (also called full virtualization VMs, or SysVMs[1])
provide a substitute for a real machine. They provide the functionality needed to
execute entire operating systems. A hypervisor uses native execution to share
and manage hardware, allowing for multiple environments that are isolated from
one another yet exist on the same physical machine. Modern hypervisors use
hardware-assisted virtualization, with virtualization-specific hardware features
on the host CPUs providing assistance to hypervisors.
Process virtual machines are designed to execute computer programs in a
platform-independent environment.
Some virtual machine emulators, such as QEMU and video game console virt-manager running the Haiku operating system in a
emulators, are designed to also emulate (or "virtually imitate") different system window
architectures, thus allowing execution of software applications and operating
systems written for another CPU or architecture. OS-level virtualization allows the
resources of a computer to be partitioned via the kernel. The terms are not universally interchangeable.
Definitions
System virtual machines
A 'virtual machine' was originally defined by Popek and Goldberg as "an efficient, isolated duplicate of a real computer machine."[2]
Current use includes virtual machines that have no direct correspondence to any real hardware.[3] The physical, "real-world" hardware
running the VM is generally referred to as the 'host', and the virtual machine emulated on that machine is generally referred to as the
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'guest'. A host can emulate several guests, each of which can emulate different operating systems and hardware platforms.
The desire to run multiple operating systems was the initial motive for virtual machines, so as to allow time-sharing among several
single-tasking operating systems. In some respects, a system virtual machine can be considered a generalization of the concept of virtual
memory that historically preceded it. IBM's CP/CMS, the first systems to allow full virtualization, implemented time sharing by
providing each user with a single-user operating system, the Conversational Monitor System (CMS). Unlike virtual memory, a system
virtual machine entitled the user to write privileged instructions in their code. This approach had certain advantages, such as adding
input/output devices not allowed by the standard system.[3]
As technology evolves virtual memory for purposes of virtualization, new systems of memory overcommitment may be applied to
manage memory sharing among multiple virtual machines on one computer operating system. It may be possible to share memory
pages that have identical contents among multiple virtual machines that run on the same physical machine, what may result in mapping
them to the same physical page by a technique termed kernel same-page merging (KSM). This is especially useful for read-only pages,
such as those holding code segments, which is the case for multiple virtual machines running the same or similar software, software
libraries, web servers, middleware components, etc. The guest operating systems do not need to be compliant with the host hardware,
thus making it possible to run different operating systems on the same computer (e.g., Windows, Linux, or prior versions of an
operating system) to support future software.[4]
The use of virtual machines to support separate guest operating systems is popular in regard to embedded systems. A typical use would
be to run a real-time operating system simultaneously with a preferred complex operating system, such as Linux or Windows. Another
use would be for novel and unproven software still in the developmental stage, so it runs inside a sandbox. Virtual machines have other
advantages for operating system development and may include improved debugging access and faster reboots.[5]
Multiple VMs running their own guest operating system are frequently engaged for server consolidation.[6]
Process virtual machines
A process virtual machine, sometimes called an application virtual machine, or Managed Runtime Environment (MRE), runs as a
normal application inside a host OS and supports a single process. It is created when that process is started and deleted when it is
closed. Its purpose is to provide a platform-independent programming environment that abstracts away details of the underlying
hardware or operating system and allows a program to execute in the same way on any platform.
A process VM provides a high-level abstraction – that of a high-level programming language (compared to the low-level ISA abstraction
of the system VM). Process VMs are implemented using an interpreter; performance comparable to compiled programming languages
can be achieved by the use of just-in-time compilation.
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This type of VM has become popular with the Java programming language, which is implemented using the Java virtual machine. Other
examples include the Parrot virtual machine and the .NET Framework, which runs on a VM called the Common Language Runtime. All
of them can serve as an abstraction layer for any computer language.
A special case of process VMs are systems that abstract over the communication mechanisms of a (potentially heterogeneous) computer
cluster. Such a VM does not consist of a single process, but one process per physical machine in the cluster. They are designed to ease
the task of programming concurrent applications by letting the programmer focus on algorithms rather than the communication
mechanisms provided by the interconnect and the OS. They do not hide the fact that communication takes place, and as such do not
attempt to present the cluster as a single machine.
Unlike other process VMs, these systems do not provide a specific programming language, but are embedded in an existing language;
typically such a system provides bindings for several languages (e.g., C and Fortran). Examples are Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) and
Message Passing Interface (MPI).
History
Both system virtual machines and process virtual machines date to the 1960s and remain areas of active development.
System virtual machines grew out of time-sharing, as notably implemented in the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS). Time-
sharing allowed multiple users to use a computer concurrently: each program appeared to have full access to the machine, but only one
program was executed at the time, with the system switching between programs in time slices, saving and restoring state each time. This
evolved into virtual machines, notably via IBM's research systems: the M44/44X, which used partial virtualization, and the CP-40 and
SIMMON, which used full virtualization, and were early examples of hypervisors. The first widely available virtual machine architecture
was the CP-67/CMS (see History of CP/CMS for details). An important distinction was between using multiple virtual machines on one
host system for time-sharing, as in M44/44X and CP-40, and using one virtual machine on a host system for prototyping, as in
SIMMON. Emulators, with hardware emulation of earlier systems for compatibility, date back to the IBM System/360 in 1963,[7][8]
while the software emulation (then-called "simulation") predates it.
Process virtual machines arose originally as abstract platforms for an intermediate language used as the intermediate representation of
a program by a compiler; early examples date to around 1964 with the META II compiler-writing system using it for both syntax
description and target code generation. A notable 1966 example was the O-code machine, a virtual machine that executes O-code (object
code) emitted by the front end of the BCPL compiler. This abstraction allowed the compiler to be easily ported to a new architecture by
implementing a new back end that took the existing O-code and compiled it to machine code for the underlying physical machine. The
Euler language used a similar design, with the intermediate language named P (portable).[9] This was popularized around 1970 by
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Pascal, notably in the Pascal-P system (1973) and Pascal-S compiler (1975), in which it was termed p-code and the resulting machine as
a p-code machine. This has been influential, and virtual machines in this sense have been often generally called p-code machines. In
addition to being an intermediate language, Pascal p-code was also executed directly by an interpreter implementing the virtual
machine, notably in UCSD Pascal (1978); this influenced later interpreters, notably the Java virtual machine (JVM). Another early
example was SNOBOL4 (1967), which was written in the SNOBOL Implementation Language (SIL), an assembly language for a virtual
machine, which was then targeted to physical machines by transpiling to their native assembler via a macro assembler.[10] Macros have
since fallen out of favor, however, so this approach has been less influential. Process virtual machines were a popular approach to
implementing early microcomputer software, including Tiny BASIC and adventure games, from one-off implementations such as
Pyramid 2000 to a general-purpose engine like Infocom's z-machine, which Graham Nelson argues is "possibly the most portable
virtual machine ever created".[11]
Significant advances occurred in the implementation of Smalltalk-80,[12] particularly the Deutsch/Schiffmann implementation[13]
which pushed just-in-time (JIT) compilation forward as an implementation approach that uses process virtual machine.[14] Later
notable Smalltalk VMs were VisualWorks, the Squeak Virtual Machine,[15] and Strongtalk.[16] A related language that produced a lot of
virtual machine innovation was the Self programming language,[17] which pioneered adaptive optimization[18] and generational garbage
collection. These techniques proved commercially successful in 1999 in the HotSpot Java virtual machine.[19] Other innovations include
a register-based virtual machine, to better match the underlying hardware, rather than a stack-based virtual machine, which is a closer
match for the programming language; in 1995, this was pioneered by the Dis virtual machine for the Limbo language.
Virtualization techniques
Full virtualization
In full virtualization, the virtual machine simulates enough hardware to allow an unmodified "guest" OS (one designed for the same
instruction set) to be run in isolation. This approach was pioneered in 1966 with the IBM CP-40 and CP-67, predecessors of the VM
family.
Examples outside the mainframe field include Parallels Workstation, Parallels Desktop for Mac, VirtualBox, Virtual Iron, Oracle VM,
Virtual PC, Virtual Server, Hyper-V, VMware Fusion, VMware Workstation, VMware Server (discontinued, formerly called GSX Server),
VMware ESXi, QEMU, Adeos, Mac-on-Linux, Win4BSD, Win4Lin Pro, and Egenera vBlade technology.
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Hardware-assisted virtualization
In hardware-assisted virtualization, the hardware provides architectural support that facilitates
building a virtual machine monitor and allows guest OSes to be run in isolation.[20] Hardware-
assisted virtualization was first introduced on the IBM System/370 in 1972, for use with
VM/370, the first virtual machine operating system offered by IBM as an official product.[21]
In 2005 and 2006, Intel and AMD provided additional hardware to support virtualization. Sun
Microsystems (now Oracle Corporation) added similar features in their UltraSPARC T-Series
processors in 2005. Examples of virtualization platforms adapted to such hardware include
KVM, VMware Workstation, VMware Fusion, Hyper-V, Windows Virtual PC, Xen, Parallels
Desktop for Mac, Oracle VM Server for SPARC, VirtualBox and Parallels Workstation.
In 2006, first-generation 32- and 64-bit x86 hardware support was found to rarely offer
performance advantages over software virtualization.[22]
OS-level virtualization
Logical diagram of full virtualization
In OS-level virtualization, a physical server is virtualized at the operating system level, enabling
multiple isolated and secure virtualized servers to run on a single physical server. The "guest"
operating system environments share the same running instance of the operating system as the host system. Thus, the same operating
system kernel is also used to implement the "guest" environments, and applications running in a given "guest" environment view it as a
stand-alone system. The pioneer implementation was FreeBSD jails; other examples include Docker, Solaris Containers, OpenVZ,
Linux-VServer, LXC, AIX Workload Partitions, Parallels Virtuozzo Containers, and iCore Virtual Accounts.
Snapshots
A snapshot is a state of a virtual machine, and generally its storage devices, at an exact point in time. A snapshot enables the virtual
machine's state at the time of the snapshot to be restored later, effectively undoing any changes that occurred afterwards. This capability
is useful as a backup technique, for example, prior to performing a risky operation.
Virtual machines frequently use virtual disks for their storage; in a very simple example, a 10-gigabyte hard disk drive is simulated with
a 10-gigabyte flat file. Any requests by the VM for a location on its physical disk are transparently translated into an operation on the
corresponding file. Once such a translation layer is present, however, it is possible to intercept the operations and send them to different
files, depending on various criteria. Every time a snapshot is taken, a new file is created, and used as an overlay for its predecessors.
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New data is written to the topmost overlay; reading existing data, however, needs the overlay hierarchy to be scanned, resulting in
accessing the most recent version. Thus, the entire stack of snapshots is virtually a single coherent disk; in that sense, creating
snapshots works similarly to the incremental backup technique.
Other components of a virtual machine can also be included in a snapshot, such as the contents of its random-access memory (RAM),
BIOS settings, or its configuration settings. "Save state" feature in video game console emulators is an example of such snapshots.
Restoring a snapshot consists of discarding or disregarding all overlay layers that are added after that snapshot, and directing all new
changes to a new overlay.
Migration
The snapshots described above can be moved to another host machine with its own hypervisor; when the VM is temporarily stopped,
snapshotted, moved, and then resumed on the new host, this is known as migration. If the older snapshots are kept in sync regularly,
this operation can be quite fast, and allow the VM to provide uninterrupted service while its prior physical host is, for example, taken
down for physical maintenance.
Failover
Similar to the migration mechanism described above, failover allows the VM to continue operations if the host fails. Generally it occurs
if the migration has stopped working. However, in this case, the VM continues operation from the last-known coherent state, rather
than the current state, based on whatever materials the backup server was last provided with.
Nested virtualization
Nested virtualization refers to the ability of running a virtual machine within another, having this general concept extendable to an
arbitrary depth. In other words, nested virtualization refers to running one or more hypervisors inside another hypervisor. The nature of
a nested guest virtual machine does not need to be homogeneous with its host virtual machine; for example, application virtualization
can be deployed within a virtual machine created by using hardware virtualization.[23]
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Nested virtualization becomes more necessary as widespread operating systems gain built-in hypervisor functionality, which in a
virtualized environment can be used only if the surrounding hypervisor supports nested virtualization; for example, Windows 7 is
capable of running Windows XP applications inside a built-in virtual machine. Furthermore, moving already existing virtualized
environments into a cloud, following the Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) approach, is much more complicated if the destination IaaS
platform does not support nested virtualization.[24][25]
The way nested virtualization can be implemented on a particular computer architecture depends on supported hardware-assisted
virtualization capabilities. If a particular architecture does not provide hardware support required for nested virtualization, various
software techniques are employed to enable it.[24] Over time, more architectures gain required hardware support; for example, since the
Haswell microarchitecture (announced in 2013), Intel started to include VMCS shadowing as a technology that accelerates nested
virtualization.[26]
See also
Amazon Machine Image Virtual appliance
Desktop virtualization Virtual backup appliance
Linux containers Virtual disk image
Native development kit Virtual DOS machine (VDM)
Paravirtualization Virtual machine escape
Storage hypervisor Virtual private server
Universal Turing machine
References
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net/publication/221028529_On_Expressing_Different_Concurrency_Paradigms_on_Virtual_Execution_Systems) (Ph.D. thesis).
University of Pisa. Retrieved 2025-05-12.
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e.iitb.ac.in/~puru/courses/spring12/cs695/downloads/popekgoldberg.pdf) (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 17 (7): 412–421.
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7. Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (https://archive.org/details/buildingibmshapi00pug
h). MIT. p. 274 (https://archive.org/details/buildingibmshapi00pugh/page/n280). ISBN 978-0-262-16147-3.
8. Pugh, Emerson W.; et al. (1991). IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems (https://archive.org/details/ibms360early370s0000pugh). MIT.
pp. 160–161 (https://archive.org/details/ibms360early370s0000pugh/page/160). ISBN 978-0-262-16123-7.
9. Wirth, Niklaus Emil; Weber, Helmut (1966). EULER: a generalization of ALGOL, and its formal definition: Part II, Communications of
the Association for Computing Machinery (http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=365170.365202,). Vol. 9. New York: ACM. pp. 89–99.
10. Griswold, Ralph E. The Macro Implementation of SNOBOL4. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1972 (ISBN 0-
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11. Nelson, Graham A. "About Interpreters" (http://www.inform-fiction.org/zmachine/interpreters.html). Inform website. Archived (https://
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angu00gold). Addison-Wesley Series in Computer Science. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-201-11371-6.
13. Deutsch, L. Peter; Schiffman, Allan M. (1984). "Efficient implementation of the Smalltalk-80 system" (http://portal.acm.org/citation.cf
m?id=800017.800542). POPL. Salt Lake City, Utah: ACM. doi:10.1145/800017.800542 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F800017.800542).
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14. Aycock, John (2003). "A brief history of just-in-time". ACM Comput. Surv. 35 (2): 97–113. doi:10.1145/857076.857077 (https://doi.or
g/10.1145%2F857076.857077). S2CID 15345671 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15345671).
15. Ingalls Jr., Daniel "Dan" Henry Holmes; Kaehler, Ted; Maloney, John; Wallace, Scott; Kay, Alan Curtis (1997). "Back to the future:
the story of Squeak, a practical Smalltalk written in itself". OOPSLA '97: Proceedings of the 12th ACM SIGPLAN conference on
Object-oriented programming, systems, languages, and applications. New York, NY, US: ACM Press. pp. 318–326.
doi:10.1145/263698.263754 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F263698.263754). ISBN 0-89791-908-4.
16. Bracha, Gilad; Griswold, David (1993). "Strongtalk: Typechecking Smalltalk in a Production Environment". Proceedings of the Eighth
Annual Conference on Object-oriented Programming Systems, Languages, and Applications. OOPSLA '93. New York, NY, US:
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17. Ungar, David Michael; Smith, Randall B. (December 1987). "Self: The power of simplicity". ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 22 (12): 227–
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18. Hölzle, Urs; Ungar, David Michael (1994). "Optimizing dynamically-dispatched calls with run-time type feedback" (http://portal.acm.o
rg/citation.cfm?id=178243.178478). PLDI. Orlando, Florida, United States: ACM. pp. 326–336. doi:10.1145/178243.178478 (https://d
oi.org/10.1145%2F178243.178478). ISBN 0-89791-662-X.
19. Paleczny, Michael; Vick, Christopher; Click, Cliff (2001). "The Java HotSpot server compiler" (https://www.usenix.org/legacy/events/j
vm01/full_papers/paleczny/paleczny.pdf) (PDF). Proceedings of the Java Virtual Machine Research and Technology Symposium on
Java Virtual Machine Research and Technology Symposium. Vol. 1. Monterey, California: USENIX Association.
20. Uhlig, Rich; Neiger, Gil; Rodgers, Dion; Santoni, Amy L.; Martins, Fernando C. M.; Anderson, Andrew V.; Bennett, Steven M.; Kägi,
Alain; Leung, Felix H.; Smith, Larry (May 2005). "Intel virtualization technology". Computer. 38 (5): 48–56. doi:10.1109/MC.2005.163
(https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMC.2005.163). S2CID 18514555 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18514555).
21. Randal, A. (2019). The Ideal Versus the Real: Revisiting the History of Virtual Machines and Containers.
22. Adams, Keith; Agesen, Ole (2006-10-21). A Comparison of Software and Hardware Techniques for x86 Virtualization (http://www.vm
ware.com/pdf/asplos235_adams.pdf) (PDF). ASPLOS’06 21–25 October 2006. San Jose, California, US. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20100820201944/http://www.vmware.com/pdf/asplos235_adams.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2010-08-20.
"Surprisingly, we find that the first-generation hardware support rarely offers performance advantages over existing software
techniques. We ascribe this situation to high VMM/guest transition costs and a rigid programming model that leaves little room for
software flexibility in managing either the frequency or cost of these transitions."
23. Orit Wasserman, Red Hat (2013). "Nested virtualization: Shadow turtles" (https://www.linux-kvm.org/images/e/e9/Kvm-forum-2013-n
ested-virtualization-shadow-turtles.pdf) (PDF). KVM forum. Retrieved 2021-05-07.
24. Muli Ben-Yehuda; Michael D. Day; Zvi Dubitzky; Michael Factor; Nadav Har’El; Abel Gordon; Anthony Liguori; Orit Wasserman;
Ben-Ami Yassour (2010-09-23). "The Turtles Project: Design and Implementation of Nested Virtualization" (https://www.usenix.org/le
gacy/event/osdi10/tech/full_papers/Ben-Yehuda.pdf) (PDF). usenix.org. Retrieved 2014-12-16.
25. Alex Fishman; Mike Rapoport; Evgeny Budilovsky; Izik Eidus (2013-06-25). "HVX: Virtualizing the Cloud" (http://0b4af6cdc2f0c5998
459-c0245c5c937c5dedcca3f1764ecc9b2f.r43.cf2.rackcdn.com/11552-hotcloud13-fishman.pdf) (PDF). rackcdn.com. Retrieved
2014-12-16.
26. "4th-Gen Intel Core vPro Processors with Intel VMCS Shadowing" (https://www-ssl.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/docume
nts/white-papers/intel-vmcs-shadowing-paper.pdf) (PDF). Intel. 2013. Retrieved 2014-12-16.
Further reading
James E. Smith, Ravi Nair, Virtual Machines: Versatile Platforms For Systems And Processes, Morgan Kaufmann, May 2005,
ISBN 1-55860-910-5, 656 pages (covers both process and system virtual machines)
Craig, Iain D. Virtual Machines. Springer, 2006, ISBN 1-85233-969-1, 269 pages (covers only process virtual machines)
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External links
Mendel Rosenblum (2004-08-31). "The Reincarnation of Virtual Machines" (https://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=1017000). ACM
Queue. Vol. 2, no. 5.
Sandia National Laboratories Runs 1 Million Linux Kernels as Virtual Machines (http://www.net-security.org/secworld.php?id=7837)
The design of the Inferno virtual machine by Phil Winterbottom and Rob Pike (http://doc.cat-v.org/inferno/4th_edition/dis_VM_desig
n)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Virtual_machine&oldid=1306061124"
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