2 Over-current Protection

of Transmission Lines

2.1 Introduction
As already pointed out, the most obvious effect of a shunt fault is a sudden build up of
current. Therefore, it is only natural that the magnitude of current be utilized as a
positive indication of existence of a fault. It is no wonder, therefore, that the over-current
protection is the most widely used form of protection. In many situations, it may be the
only protection provided. This type of protection which depends on only the magnitude
of the current, without taking any cognizance of its phase angle, is known as the
non-directional over-current protection.
However, many times it is required to discriminate between faults in front of the
breaker and faults behind the breaker. This is possible only if we take into account, not
only the magnitude of the current but also its phase with respect to the voltage at the
relay location. In such cases, the protection is known as the directional over-current
protection. A little thought will convince the readers that a directional over-current
protection affords greater selectivity than a non-directional over-current protection.
We must not forget that any type of protection is first a concept. Then, it needs to
be implemented. The vehicle of implementation is the relay. We can thus imagine a non-
directional over-current relay, which provides the non-directional over-current protection
and so on.
Historically, however, fuses have preceded the over-current relays for providing over-
current protection. We will, therefore, take a brief look at fuses in the next section.

2.2 Fuse
Fuses are the oldest protective devices that have survived from the dawn of the age of
electricity to the present times. This can be attributed to their intuitive simplicity. The
fuse allows the normal current to flow but melts itself out, thus breaking the circuit,
when the current exceeds a certain magnitude for a certain amount of time. It combines
the functions of sensing, comparing, and interrupting the current into one. Figure 2.1(a)
depicts the external appearance of a high rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse. The current
26
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 27

versus time characteristic of a fuse is shown in Figure 2.1(b). The waveform of the short-
circuit current interrupted by a fuse is shown in Figure 2.1(c), where it can be seen that
the fuse interrupts the current even before it attains its peak value.

(a) External appearance of a HRC fuse

Fusing time

Rated current

Current

(b) Time-current characteristic of a fuse

Prospective peak
Current

Fault current

Normal current

Time

Instant of
interruption

(c) Short-circuit current interrupted by a fuse

Figure 2.1 High rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse.

2.3 Thermal Relays

Thermal relays, of the bimetallic type, work on the principle of strain generated due to
unequal linear expansion of two different metals as a result of heat generated by the
28 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

passage of the fault current. Figure 2.2(a) shows a bimetallic relay consisting of strips AB
and CD of two different materials. Both the strips get heated up by the same amount but
are deformed by differing amounts. Figure 2.2(b) shows the relay operation. The material
with higher coefficient of expansion is at the outer surface of the curve while that with
lower coefficient is at the inner surface.

Low coefficient
of expansion Heater coil
Trip contacts
C D
A B

I I
High coefficient
of expansion

(a)

Trip contact

D
C B
A

I I

(b)

Figure 2.2 A bimetallic relay.

Since the heating effect is proportional to the square of the current, the energy
dissipated is given by (I 2 R)t, where t is the time for which the current flows through the
relay.
Since accumulation of sufficient amount of heat depends on the thermal inertia of the
relay, which tends to be rather large, these relays are used where very quick operation
is not called for. A typical application of the thermal relay is to provide protection against
prolonged overloading of motors. The thermal overload relay thus lets the motor supply
overload for a preset amount of time before tripping it off.

2.4 Over-current Relay

An over-current (OC) relay has a single input in the form of ac current. The output of
the relay is a normally-open contact, which changes over to closed state when the relay
trips. The relay has two settings. These are the time setting and the plug setting. The
time setting decides the operating time of the relay while the plug setting decides the
current required for the relay to pick up. The name plug setting comes from the
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 29

electromechanical over-current relay. In these relays, we have to insert a shorting plug in

a plug-setting bridge, so as to change the number of turns of the operating coil to get a
particular pick-up value. The same terminology continues to be used in the modern
relays. The block diagram of an OC relay is shown in Figure 2.3.

Time setting

Input current Time over-current Trip output

relay

Plug setting (Pick-up)

Figure 2.3 Block diagram of an over-current relay.

The plug-setting multiplier, PSM, is defined as follows:

Irelay
PSM =
PS

where Irelay is the current through the relay operating coil and PS is the plug-setting of
the relay. The value of PSM tells us about the severity of the current as seen by the relay.
A PSM less than 1 means that normal load current is flowing. At PSM > 1, the relay is
supposed to pick up. Higher values of PSM indicate how serious the fault is.
For example, let us consider a 1.0 A relay (i.e. a relay with current coil designed to
carry 1.0 A on a continuous basis) whose plug has been set at 0.5 A, i.e. at 50%. Assume
that, for a certain fault, the relay current is 5.0 A. The relay, therefore, is said to be
operating at a PSM of (5.0/0.5) = 10.

2.4.1 Instantaneous OC Relay

It is to be noted that the word instantaneous has a different connotation in the field of
power system protection. Instantaneous actually means no intentional time delay.
Howsoever fast we want the relay to operate; it needs a certain minimum amount of time.
The operating time of an instantaneous relay is of the order of a few milliseconds. Such
a relay has only the pick-up setting and does not have any time setting. The construction
and the characteristics of an instantaneous attracted armature type relay is shown in
Figure 2.4, wherein it can be seen that as the armature of the relay gets attracted towards
the coil, the air-gap becomes smaller, and hence the reluctance becomes smaller. This
results in increased flux which causes the force on the armature to build up (force being
proportional to the square of the flux density). This is a positive feedback action which
results in the armature moving quickly in an instantaneous snap action. The operating
torque on the armature is proportional to the square of the current.
30 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Hinge Spring

Operating time (milliseconds)

Trip contact

Current

Flux
Operating time

Current (amperes)
Pick-up value

Figure 2.4 Instantaneous over-current relay characteristic.

2.4.2 Definite Time Over-current Relay

A definite time over-current relay can be adjusted to issue a trip output at a definite (and
adjustable) amount of time, after it picks up. Thus, it has a time-setting adjustment and
a pick-up adjustment. The characteristic and the block diagram are shown in
Figure 2.5.

Time setting
Operating time

Current Trip output

Plug setting
Plug setting

Time setting Operating time

Current
Pick-up value

Figure 2.5 Definite time over-current relay characteristic.

2.4.3 Inverse Time Over-current Relay

Inverse time characteristic fits in very well, with the requirement that the more severe
a fault is, the faster it should be cleared to avoid damage to the apparatus. This type of
characteristic is naturally obtained from an electromechanical relay, which has led to its
widespread use and standardization. With the advent of microprocessor-based relays, it is
now possible to generate any imaginable time-current characteristic. However, in order to
maintain compatibility with the very large number of electromechanical relays, still in
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 31

service, certain inverse time characteristics, described in the next section, have been
standardized.

Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current relay

This is possibly the most widely used characteristic. The characteristic is inverse in the
initial part, which tends to a definite minimum operating time as the current becomes
very high. The reason for the operating time becoming definite minimum, at high values
of current, is that in the electromechanical relays the flux saturates at high values of
current and the relay operating torque, which is proportional to the square of the flux,
does not increase substantially after the saturation sets in. Such a characteristic came
about because of the limitation of the electromechanical technology. Ideally, we may
demand that the operating time be inverse in nature throughout the operating range. The
mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of IDMT characteristic
can be written as

0.14 (TMS)
top =
(PSM)0.02 − 1

where PSM is the plug-setting multiplier and TMS is the time-multiplier setting of the
relay. Thus, the operating time is directly proportional to the TMS and inversely
proportional to the PSM. The characteristics of the IDMT relay are shown in
Figure 2.6.

27

24
Extremely inverse
21
Operating time (seconds)

18
Very inverse

15
IDMT
12

9
Extremely inverse IDMT
6
Very inverse
3

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Plug-setting multiplier (relay current as a multiple of plug setting)
Figure 2.6 Inverse definite minimum time relay characteristics (TMS = 1.0).
32 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Very inverse time over-current relay

The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the IDMT characteristic. The
mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of such a characteristic
can be written as

13.5 (TMS)
top =
(PSM) – 1

The characteristic of the relay is shown in Figure 2.6.

Extremely inverse time over-current relay

The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the very inverse
characteristic. The mathematical relation between the current and the operating time of
such a characteristic can be written as

80.0 (TMS)
top =
(PSM)2 – 1

The characteristic of the relay is shown in Figure 2.6.

2.5 Implementation of Over-current Relay Using Induction

Disk
In order to understand the working of an induction disk type relay, let us first see how
torque can be produced by two alternating fluxes acting on a common metallic but non-
magnetic rotor. Figure 2.7 shows two alternating fluxes f1 and f2 having a phase
difference of q between them.
Induced flux

Alternating fluxes if

Eddy current
f2 f1
if2

if2
F2 F1
if1

if 1

A part of Eddy current

aluminium disc

Figure 2.7 Operating principle of induction disc type relay.

 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 33

Thus, we have
f1 = f m1 sin w t
f 2 = fm2 sin (w t + q )
Each flux induces a voltage in the disc, and hence gives rise to induced currents if1 and
if 2. Assuming that the eddy current path has negligible inductance, we can write

d f1
if1 μ = wf m1 cos w t
dt
d f2
if 2 μ = wfm2 cos (w t + q)
dt
As shown in Figure 2.7, f1 interacts with if 2 to produce force F1. Likewise f 2 interacts
with if 1 to produce a force F2. Assuming w to be constant, we have
F1 = f1if 2 μ fm1fm2 sin w t cos (w t + q)
F2 = f2 if 1 μ fm1fm2 sin (w t + q) cos w t
The net force (F2 - F1 ) is thus, given by
F2 – F1 μ fm1fm2 [sin (w t + q) cos w t – cos (w t + q) sin w t ]
which simplifies to
F2 – F1 μ fm1fm2 sin q
The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above expression for
torque:
∑ Two alternating fluxes with a phase shift are needed for torque production,
i.e. a single alternating flux would not produce torque.
∑ Maximum torque is produced when two alternating fluxes are shifted in phase
by 90°.
∑ The resultant torque is steady, i.e. it is not a function of time, as time t is not
involved in the expression for torque.
Since in an over-current relay, there is only one input quantity, it will not be possible
to produce torque unless two fluxes shifted in phase are produced.
The above principle has been used in the induction disc type over-current relay whose
construction is shown in Figure 2.8. Herein two fluxes shifted in time phase are obtained
from the input current, by using a shading coil. The flux in the shaded coil lags the main
flux. The torque thus produced by the interaction of the two fluxes, neglecting saturation,
is proportional to I 2 since each of the flux is proportional to I. This is the deflecting
torque Tdeflecting. The spiral spring provides the control torque Tcontrolling. The control
torque can be considered to be directly proportional to the angle d , through which the
back-stop has been retarded from the trip position. The permanent magnet provides the
damping torque, which is active only when the disc is in motion and is thus proportional
to the rate of change of angle dd /dt. The torque equation can therefore be written as
34 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

TMS adjustment dial

0.8 0.9 1.0

Back-stop f2
f1
IR
Movable contact

Shading coil 3.0 A

Plug setting
Permanent Aluminium 0.5 A
magnet disc
IR
Control
spring Trip
contact Operating coil
Iron core

F1

F2

Figure 2.8 Construction of an induction disc relay.

Tdeflecting > Tcontrolling + Tdamping

or
dd
KI 2 > Sd + D
dt
where K is deflection constant, S is the spring constant, and D is the damping constant.
All these constants depend upon the design of the relay.
When the disc is on the verge of deflection, we can equate the torques and write

dd S K
+ K1d − K 2 I 2 = 0, K1 = and K2 =
dt D D
The solution of the above equation is of the form
d = K3 e–t – K4
where K3 and K4 are functions of K1 and K2, i.e. S, D and I 2. Now,
At t = 0; d = d initial
At t = top; d=0
We can find the operating time by finding the value of time t for which d becomes
zero. The value of d initial is decided by the time-multiplier setting.
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 35

The exact analysis of the dynamics of induction disc is quite involved. However, it can
be noted that by proper design of the magnetic circuit a wide range of characteristics from
extremely inverse to definite time can be obtained.

2.6 Application of Definite Time OC Relays for Protection

of a Distribution Feeder
Consider a three-phase feeder as shown in the single-line diagram of Figure 2.9, with two
line sections AB and BC. Assume that DTOC relays are used at buses A and B. There are
loads at all the three buses.
Three-phase line
Source Bus A Bus B Bus C
ZS CB IR, A IR, B

E CT DTOC DTOC
relay RA relay RB
Load Load Load
I L,A Trip I L,B Trip I L, C

If,A
Fault current

If, B
If, C

Fault location
Figure 2.9 Application of DTOC relays for feeder protection.

The protection problem can be stated as follows:

Given the magnitudes of all the loads and the fault currents at all the buses, how to
set the DTOC relays at buses A and B so that the entire feeder gets over-current
protection arranged as primary and back-up protection.
The first step in designing the over-current protection is to select the ratios for all
the CTs. The secondary current of the CT is decided by the rating of the relay current
coil. The CT primary current is decided by the maximum load current to be carried by
the CT primary. Next we have to do the relay setting. It may be noted that setting of the
relay, where the DTOC relays are involved, means:
1. How to select the pick-up value of the relay?
2. How to set the operating time of the relay?

How to select the pick-up value of the relay?

The setting problem has been pictorially depicted in Figure 2.10.
We can set the pick-up value of the relay, keeping in mind, that the relay should allow
normal load as well as a certain degree of overload to be supplied. Thus the pick-up value
36 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

of the relay should be more than the allowable maximum load. At the same time, the relay
should be sensitive enough to respond to the smallest fault. Thus, the pick-up value
should be less than the smallest fault current. Therefore, we can write the following rule,
as far as setting the pick-up value of the OC relay is concerned:
IL, max < Ipu < If, min

Plug setting
(amps)

? ? ?
0 amperes

Load current
Permissible
overload
Minimum fault current

Maximum fault current

Figure 2.10 The plug setting of DTOC relays.

How to set the operating time of the relay

Here we are guided by the principle that a relay must get an adequate chance to protect
the zone under its primary protection. Only if the primary protection does not clear the
fault, the back-up protection should initiate tripping. Thus as soon as the fault takes
place, it is sensed by both the primary and the back-up protection. Naturally, the primary
protection is the first to operate, its operating time being less than that of the back-up
relay. Figure 2.11 shows the relationship between the operating time of the primary relay
and that of the back-up relay. We have to allow for the overshoot of the primary relay, so
that there is proper coordination between the primary and the back-up. Overshoot time

If fault is cleared beyond this point Overshoot

the relay RA does not reset time, TOS, A
Relay RA operating time, TR, A
Time

Fault instant Relay RA

trips

Relay RB operating Circuit breaker B

time, TR, B operating time, TCB, B
TR, A > TR, B + TCB, B + TOS, A
Time
TOS, A

Figure 2.11 The time setting of DTOC relays.

 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 37

is defined as the time for which the relay mechanism continues to move, even after the
operating coil has been de-energized. Overshoot is because of the moment of inertia of the
moving system.
In the light of the above discussion, the correct procedure would be to start
the setting from the tail end of the feeder system. The relay, which is at the end of the
radial feeder, can be made to operate without any delay, as it does not have to coordinate
with any other relay. In the given example of Figure 2.9, let us assume that the operating
time of RB is set to 0.1 s. Thus relay RA should wait for 0.1 s plus, a time equal to the
operating time of circuit at bus B (TCB,B ) plus overshoot time of relay A (TOS,A). Thus,
we can write
TR,B = 0.1 s (fastest)
TR,A = TR,B + TCB,B + TOS,A

Assuming CB operating time = 0.5 s and overshoot time = 0.2 s, we have

TR,A = 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.2 = 0.8 s

The time step between the operating times of the two relays, which is equal to the sum
of the operating time of the circuit breaker at B and the overshoot time of relay A, is
essential for maintaining selectivity between relays at A and B. Hence this interval is
referred to as the selective time interval (STI). The worksheet for the settings of the relays
thus can be written as shown in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Purpose and setting of relays

Relay Purpose Pick-up value Time setting

Primary protection Fastest
of section BC IL,C < Ipu R,B < If,C, min TR,B = 0.1 s
RB
Note: RB is at the
tail end of the system
Back-up protection of (IL,B + IL,C) < Ipu R,A < If,C, min TR,A = TR,B + TCB,B + TOS,A
section BC = 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.2
RA
Primary protection of = 0.8 s
section AB

Note that the setting process has to be started from the relay which is at the tail end
of the system. This is because this relay is not at all constrained by selectivity problems.
All other upstream relay settings are tied up with their downstream neighbours.
The result of this setting process is shown in Figure 2.12. It can be seen from this
figure that as the fault moves towards the source, the fault currents become larger and
the fault clearing time also becomes longer. This is because the relays nearer the source
are deliberately delayed so that they are selective with relays downstream. Thus, the relay
nearest to the source is the slowest. This is not desirable. It can be shown that a
significant improvement in fault clearing time, as we move towards the source, is
obtained if we use the Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relays.
38 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Three-phase line
Bus A Bus B Bus C
Source ZS CB IR, A IR, B

E CT
DTOC DTOC
relay RA relay RB
Load Load Load
I L, A Trip I L, B Trip I L, C

If,A
Fault current

If, B
If, C

Fault location
Relay operating time

0.8 s
STI = 0.7 s
Operating time
of RA = 0.8 s Operating time
of RB = 0.1 s
Fault location
Figure 2.12 Setting of DTOC relays for OC protection of a feeder.

2.7 Application of Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

on a Distribution Feeder
Consider a radial feeder with two buses A and B where IDMT OC relays are to be used
(Figure 2.13). It should be noted that:

Three-phase line
Source Bus A Bus B Bus C
ZS CB IR, A IR, B

E CT
IDMT IDMT
relay RA relay RB
Load I L, A Load I L,B Load I L, C
= 200 A = 160 A = 80 A
Trip Trip

Bus A Bus B Bus C

If, min = 3500 A If, min = 2000 A If, min = 1000 A
If, max = 4000 A If, max = 3000 A If, max = 1500 A

Figure 2.13 Setting of IDMT OC relays.

 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 39

∑ The purpose of relay RB is to provide primary protection to line BC.

∑ The purpose of relay RA is to provide primary protection to line AB and back-up
to line BC.
We start the setting process from the tail end of the system.
(a) Deciding the CT ratios and plug settings:
(i) At relay B, the maximum load current, assuming 25% overload is:
80 A + (0.25 ¥ 80 A) = 100 A
Assuming 1 A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to be 100 : 1. The plug
setting PS can be done at 100%, i.e. PS = 1.0 A.
(ii) At relay A the maximum load current, assuming 25% overload is:
(160 + 80) + 0.25 (160 + 80) = 300 A
Assuming 1 A relay to be used, the CT ratio can be selected to be 300 : 1. The plug
setting can be done at 100%, i.e. PS = 1.0 A.
(b) Deciding the time-multiplier settings: Starting from the most remote relay RB
(i) Since RB does not have to maintain selectivity with any other relay, it can be
made to operate the fastest. Thus the TMS of RB can be selected as 0.1.
(ii) Now, to maintain selectivity between RA and RB, the following constraint must
be met:
Operating time of Operating time of Circuit breaker B Overshoot time
RA for maximum = RB for maximum + operating time + of RA
fault at B fault at B

The operating time of RB for maximum fault just beyond bus B can be found from
0.14 (TMS)
TR, B =
PSM 0.02 − 1
For maximum fault at B, fault current = 3000 A on primary side which becomes
(3000/100) = 30 A secondary. Since plug setting is done at 1.0 A,
Irelay 30
PSM = = = 30
PS 1
The TMS of R B has already been set at 0.1. Substituting these values, we get
0.14 (0.1)
TR,B = = 0.1988 ≅ 0.2 s
30 0.02 − 1
Let TCB,B = 0.5 s. Then,
TR,B + TCB,B = 0.7 s
This value of 0.7 s is the desired operating time of RA. Assuming overshoot time of RA
to be 10% of 0.7 s, i.e. TOS,A = 0.07 s.
Thus, we get the required operating time of RA for maximum fault at bus B:
TR,A, max fault at B = 0.2 + 0.5 + 0.07 = 0.77 s
40 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

The TMS of RA can be found from the following expression for the operating time of RA:
0.14 (TMS)
0.77 =
PSM 0.02 − 1
We have, for RA, for the above condition, PSM = Irelay /PS = (3000/300)/1 = 10
Hence, for RA
(100.02 − 1)
TMS = 0.77 = 0.26
0.14
This finishes the setting of both the relays.
We can verify that the selectivity for minimum fault at bus B is automatically
maintained.
Minimum fault current for fault at bus B = 2000 A. Relay B current corresponding
to this is 2000/100 = 20 A. Since plug setting is 1 A, this translates into a PSM of 20.
For relay RB, TMS = 0.1. Thus, operating time of RB for minimum fault at bus B will be:
0.14(0.1)
TR, B, min fault at B = TR, B = = 0.226
20 0.02 − 1
and
TCB,B = 0.5 s
Expected operating time of RA for this fault should be greater than
0.226 + 0.5 + 0.1(0.226 + 0.5) = 0.726 + 0.0726 = 0.7986 = 0.8 s (approx.)
Now, let us find out the actual operating time of RA for minimum fault at bus B:
Minimum fault current = 2000 A
Relay RA current corresponding to this is: 2000/300 = 6.66 A
Since plug setting is 1 A, this translates into a PSM of 6.66. For relay RA ,
TMS = 0.26. Thus the operating time of RA for minimum fault at bus B will be:
0.14 (0.26)
TR, A, min fault at B = TR, B = = 0.94 s
6.66 0.02 − 1
This value of 0.94 s is greater than the minimum operating time of 0.8 s, required for
maintaining selectivity between RA and RB.
The results can be listed as follows:
Relay CT ratio Plug setting TMS
RB 100 : 1 1 A 0.1
RA 300 : 1 1 A 0.26
The sketch of fault clearing time as a function of fault location for IDMT relays is shown
in Figure 2.14.
We can deduce the following general rules from the above setting exercise:
∑ Start the setting from the relay at the tail end of the system.
∑ Plug setting should be such that: IL, max < PS < If, min at the end of next section i.e. for
plug setting consider minimum fault current at the end of the next section.
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 41

∑ TMS should be decided such that the selectivity with the next relay downstream
is maintained for maximum fault current at the beginning of the next section.
Three-phase line
Bus A Bus B Bus C
Source
ZS CB IR, A IR, B

E CT IDMT
IDMT
relay RA relay RB
Operating time of

(maximum fault)
RA and RB

0.77 s RA
RB
STI
0.2 s

Fault location

Figure 2.14 Variation of fault current against fault location for IDMT relays under
maximum fault condition.

These rules are shown in Figure 2.15 for a simple system consisting of two buses. The
same principle can be extended to an n bus system. In fact, a computer algorithm can be
developed to automate this task in case of a large system.
Three-phase line
Bus A Bus B Bus C
Source
ZS CB IR, A IR, B

E CT
IDMT IDMT
relay RA relay RB
Load Load Load
I L, A I L,B I L, C
Trip Trip

If, min, A If, min, B If, min, C

If, max, A If, max, B If, max, C

Plug setting of RB should be such that:

If, min, C > PS of RB > (I L, C + Overload)

TMS of RB can be set at the smallest value of 0.1.

Plug setting of RA should be such that:
If, min, C > PS of RA > [(I L, B + I L, C) + Overload ]
TMS of RA should be such that:
Operating time of RA Operating time of RB Circuit breaker B Overshoot
= + +
for If, max, B for If, max, B operating time time of RA

Figure 2.15 Rules for setting IDMT OC relays.

42 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

2.7.1 Choice between IDMT and DTOC Relays

It can be seen that IDMT relays offer significant improvement in fault clearing times over
DTOC relays. A question that naturally arises is: if this is so, there should be no need
to use DTOC relays. However, there are situations where IDMT relays do not offer
significant advantages over DTOC relays. For example, consider a system where
ZS >> ZL. Since the fault current as a function of fault location is proportional to
E E
If = ≈
ZS + ZL ZS , it would remain more or less constant throughout the length of the
feeder, therefore, the inverseness of the IDMT characteristics cannot be exploited. In such
situations, DTOC relays being cheaper may be preferred. Such feeders are also described
as electrically short in length, irrespective of their physical length. Thus we can say that
DTOC relays are suitable for lines which are short in length.
ZS
It is a practice to recommend DTOC relays when ≥ 2 . See Figure 2.16.
ZL

A B
E ZS ZL

Short line
ZS >> ZL
E
ZS
Fault current

Long line
ZS << ZL
E
ZS + ZL

Fault location

Figure 2.16 Choice between DTOC and IDMT relays.

2.8 Protection of a Three-phase Feeder

Up to this point we have shown three-phase feeders with the help of a single-line diagram.
The single-line diagram hides the complexity of the three-phase system. The three-phase
system is subject to phase faults as well as ground faults. For providing complete
protection to a three-phase feeder, we can begin with three relays connected to three CTs
as shown in Figure 2.17. As can be seen from Table 2.2, all the 11 numbers of shunt faults
are catered for by the three relays.
The relays at bus A will be coordinated with those at bus B using the procedure
illustrated in Section 2.7.
It may be pointed out here, that fault current for a single line to ground fault,
depends upon the system grounding as well as the tower footing resistance. Therefore, it
may happen that the fault current for a single line to ground fault, may be less than the
load current. In such cases, it will not be possible to cater to such faults if we use the
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 43

Three-phase CB

Bus A Line A-B

Phase a Bus B

Ia
Ea CT ratio n : 1

Eb Ia /n
Phase b Ib
Ec Rg

Ib /n Ic
Phase c

Ic /n Rb Ra Rc Rb Ra

Rc

Trip coil

IDMT relays
Ra Rb Rc Ra Rb Rc
Trip battery

Trip contacts

Figure 2.17 OC protection of a three-phase feeder.

Table 2.2 Protection of a three-phase feeder

Relays which will operate
Fault Three-phase fault Two-phase fault + one ground
relays of Figure 2.17 fault relay of Figure 2.18
a-g Ra Ra , Rg
b-g Rb Rg
c-g Rc Rc , Rg
a-b Ra, Rb Ra
b-c Rb, Rc Rc
c-a Rc, Ra Rc , Ra
a-b-g Ra, Rb Ra , Rg
b-c-g Rb, Rc Rc , Rg
c-a-g Ra, Rc Ra , Rc, Rg
a-b-c Ra, Rb, Rc Ra , Rc
a-b-c-g Ra, Rb, Rc Ra , Rc

scheme shown in Figure 2.17. A little thought will show that if we connect an OC relay
in the residual current path as shown in Figure 2.18, it will be blind to the load current
(which is balanced three-phase current) and see only the ground fault currents. The
current in this path will be zero or near zero during normal balanced load conditions as
44 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

well as during a three-phase fault. Thus, the setting of this relay, which is in the residual
current path, can be made independent of load current and can indeed be much smaller
than the load current.
Further, as illustrated in Figure 2.18, it is not necessary to use all the three relays
for detection and protection against phase faults. We can get rid of any one phase fault
relay without affecting the performance of the scheme. In Figure 2.18, the relay in the
phase b has been removed.

n : 1

Ia
Ea

Eb Ia /n
Ib
Ec

Ib /n Ic

Ic /n
Phase fault OC
Rc relays Ra, Rc Ra Rc

Trip coil
3 Io
Ra Rg Rc Ra Rg Rc
Trip battery Ground fault Rg
OC relay Rg
Trip
contacts

Figure 2.18 Two-phase fault relays and one ground fault relay for OC protection
of a three-phase feeder.

Table 2.2 shows the operation of relays for all the 11 shunt faults for OC schemes of
Figure 2.17 and Figure 2.18, which shows that all the 11 shunt faults are catered for by
these schemes.

2.9 Directional Over-current Relay

Figure 2.19 shows a double-end-fed power system. The zones to be generated by the relays
are also shown. Consider that we have only over-current relays at our disposal. Will it be
possible to implement the desired zones using simple over-current relays? In order to
answer this question, let us focus on OC relays at bus C. Note that OC relays operate on
the magnitude of fault current and cannot sense the direction of the fault.
Consider fault Fa. As per the desired zones, only CBs 4 and 5 should trip. However,
it can be easily seen that if plain OC relays are used, CBs 3, 4, 5, and 6 will all trip as
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 45

the fault will be seen by OC relays at these locations. Thus, the desired zones are not
generated. The desired relay response is shown in Table 2.3 with respect to faults Fa
and Fb.

Load
Desired zones
of protection
9 C
A D
B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Fa Fb

Figure 2.19 Need for directional relay.

Table 2.3 Response of OC relays to generate desired zones of protection

Direction of Desired Direction of Desired

Fault fault power response fault power response of
flow at bus C of OC relay flow at bus C OC relay
as seen from 5 at 5 as seen from 6 at 6
Fa Away Trip Towards Restrain
from bus C bus C
Fb Towards Restrain Away Trip
bus C from bus C

Thus it can be seen from Table 2.3, that whenever the fault power flows away from
the bus, it is desired that the OC relay should trip. It should restrain if it sees the fault
power flowing towards the bus.

2.9.1 Other Situations Where Directional OC Relays are Necessary

There are other situations where it becomes necessary to use directional relays to
supervise OC relays. One such situation is a single-end-fed system of parallel feeders,
shown in Figure 2.20, where a fault on any of the parallel lines is fed not only from the
faulted line but from the healthy line as well.
If directional relays are not provided, in conjunction with OC relays, then the desired
zones will not be generated. This will result in both lines being tripped out for any fault
on any one of the lines.
It may be noted that directional relays with tripping direction away from the bus will
be required at locations ‘2’ and ‘3’ in Figure 2.20. However, at locations ‘1’ and ‘4’,
non-directional over-current relays will suffice. Since directional relay units cost more
and also need the provision of PTs, they should be used only when absolutely necessary.
46 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

1 2
E

4 3
Source

(a) Parallel feeders, single-end-fed system Load

Tripping direction
1 2
E

4 3

Source

Load
Fault

(b) Desired zones and tripping direction of OC relays

Figure 2.20 Single-end-fed parallel feeder needs directional OC protection.

Consider the ring main feeder system shown in Figure 2.21. This is another situation
where directional supervision of OC relays is called for. It is well known that the ring
main feeder allows supply to be maintained to all the loads in spite of fault on any section
of the feeder. A fault in any section causes only the CBs associated with that section to
trip out, and because of the ring topology, power flows from the alternate path.

E
Source
Load
Bus A

1.6 s 8 1 1.6 s
P2

0.1 s 0.1 s
P1
7 2
Bus D F2 F1 Bus B

6 3
Load Load
1.1 s 1.1 s

0.6 s 5 4 0.6 s

Bus C
Load

Figure 2.21 Protection of ring feeder using directional OC relays.

 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 47

Note that all directional relays have their tripping direction away from the concerned
bus. The procedure for setting the relays (DTOC relays have been assumed) is as follows:
Consider fault F1. Assume that the line is cut open at point P1. This makes directional
relay at 2, the remotest relay from the source. Relay at 2 is also the closest to the fault.
In accordance with the rules explained in Section 2.7, relay 2 can, therefore, be made to
operate the fastest. Let us thus choose the operating time of relay 2 as 0.1 s. Relay at 4
will back-up the relay at 2. Therefore, the operating time of relay at 4 can be set at
0.6 s (= 0.1 + 0.5) assuming CB operating time of 0.5 s. Similarly relays 6 and 8 are set
at 1.1 s (= 0.6 + 0.5) and 1.6 s (= 1.1 + 0.5), respectively.
Similar procedure is repeated for fault F2. The system is cut open at point P2 and
similar arguments lead to the operating times shown in Figure 2.21.

2.9.2 Phasor Diagram for Voltage and Current for Forward and
Reverse Fault (Single-phase System)
Figure 2.22 shows the phasor diagram for voltage and current, at a relay location, during
normal load conditions, forward fault and reverse fault. It is assumed that the voltage at
the relay location remains constant in magnitude as well as phase. It may be noted that,
as the fault moves from the front of the relay to the back, the current at the relay location
undergoes almost 180° change of phase.

A Zf, f C
EA – d Zf, r, EC – 0
ZS, A CT Z S,C
B
Reverse Forward
Ir PT
fault fault
Vr
Directional
Ir = If, rev relay
If, rev If, for
Trip

ª180° Reverse fault

Vr Load
Ir = ILoad Forward fault

EA∠d
If,for =
ZS, A + ZAB + Z f,f

EC ∠0
I f,rev =
ZS,C + ZBC + Zf,r
Ir = If,for

Figure 2.22 Voltage and current during a forward and a reverse fault.

This phase shift between the current and the voltage at the relay location can be used
to detect the direction of the fault and is the basis of working of a directional relay.
48 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Characteristics of directional relay

A directional relay can be compared to a contact making wattmeter. A wattmeter develops
maximum positive torque when the current and voltage supplied to the current coil and
the pressure coil are in phase. If we define the maximum torque angle (MTA) as the angle
between the voltage and current at which the relay develops maximum torque, then a
wattmeter can be called a directional relay with MTA of zero degree.
The phasor diagram for a directional relay is depicted in Figure 2.23.

Directional relay Induction cup

ICC
CC

From CT Trip output

PC

R
IPC
From PT
VPC

Trip f CC Position of ICC for

f CC maximum torque
Restrain ICC
ICC

q
t
VPC
qPC
IPC Operating torque = K1 f PC fCC cos (q – t)
= K2 VPC I CC cos ( q – t)
f PC

Figure 2.23 Phasor diagram for a directional relay based on induction principle.

VPC is the voltage applied to the pressure coil. The current drawn by the pressure coil
IPC lags the voltage by a large angle qPC.
As the fault moves from the forward to the reverse direction, the current undergoes
a large change in its phase whereas the phase of the voltage does not change substantially.
Thus, voltage signal is the reference against which the phase angle of the current is
measured.
Now, in a relay based on induction principle, the two fluxes responsible for torque
production, f PC and f CC should be shifted in phase by 90°, for them to produce maximum
torque. The torque becomes zero when the current phasor is ± 90° away from the MTA
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 49

position. This gives the direction of the current phasor for maximum torque, the
maximum torque angle t, and the boundary between tripping and restraining regions on
the phasor diagram.
The operating torque of the directional relay can be expressed as:
Operating torque Toperating μ f PC f CC sin (q + qPC)
From phasor diagram it can be seen that:
qPC + t = 90°
\ qPC = 90° - t
\ Toperating μ fPC fCC sin (q + 90° - t)
μ fPC fCC sin [(q - t) + 90°]
= K1 fPC fCC cos (q - t)
Since fPC μ VPC and fCC μ ICC
Toperating = K2 VPC ICC cos (q - t)
From the phasor diagram, it can be easily seen that the maximum torque angle t is
given by
t = 90° – qPC
Since the pressure coil is highly inductive, the value of qPC is of the order of 70° to 80°.
This gives MTA of 20° to 10°. However, q PC and hence t can be adjusted to any desired
value if an external resistance or capacitance is introduced into the pressure coil circuit.

2.9.3 Application of Directional Relay to a Three-phase Feeder

In case of application of directional relays to a three-phase feeder, phase faults need to be
considered separately from ground faults. There are various possibilities of energizing
these relays; hence the various alternatives need to be carefully considered. The
directional relay must meet the following requirements:
1. The relay must operate for forward faults.
2. The relay must restrain during reverse faults.
3. The relay must not operate during faults other than for which it has been
provided, i.e. the relay must not maloperate.

Directional phase fault protection

Consider a directional relay for protection against all phase faults involving phase a,
i.e. a-b, a-b-g, a-c, a-c-g, a-b-c, and a-b-c-g faults. Let us consider an a-b fault. It is logical
to choose current Ia to energize the current coil. However, the choice of voltage to be
applied to the pressure coil is not immediately apparent. Figures 2.24 and 2.25 explore
the possibility of using voltage Vab and Vca for the pressure coil of the directional relay
catering to phase faults involving phase a. From Figure 2.24, it can be seen that the
voltage Vab tends to collapse during a-b fault. Further, the angle between Vab and Ia during
50 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

fault is substantially large. For the MTA angle shown, the relay does not develop positive
torque during forward fault. From these figures, it can be easily seen that both these
voltages are not suitable, as they do not meet the requirement set out in Section 2.9.3.

Va
Phase
sequence
Ia Va, f Ia, f
Vca Vab, f

Vb, f Trip
Ic UPF position Restrain
Ib MTA line of Ia
Ia, f
Vc Vbc Vb
Vab, f Forward fault
(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

Ia Directional
relay Trip Ia, f
Vab MTA = t Reverse fault
(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and
(b) Exploring the possibility of energizing the reverse fault for phase a directional relay
phase a directional relay with Vab energized by Ia and Vab

Figure 2.24 Exploring the possibility of energizing the pressure coil of phase a
directional relay with voltage Vab.

Va
Phase
sequence
Ia Va, f
Vca Ia, f
Vca, f Vab, f UPF position
of Ia Ia, f
Vb, f
Forward fault
Ic Ib Restrain

Vc Vbc Vb Trip

(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault

Ia, f Vca, f
Ia Directional
relay Trip Reverse fault
MTA line
Vca MTA = t
(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and
(b) Exploring the possibility of energizing the reverse fault for phase a directional relay
phase a directional relay with Vca energized by Ia and Vca.

Figure 2.25 Exploring the possibility of energizing pressure coil of phase a directional
relay with voltage Vca.
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 51

Figure 2.26 shows that the voltage Vbc happens to be the correct choice. Since the unity
power factor (UPF) position of Ia leads Vbc by 90°, this connection is known as the 90°
connection.

Va
Phase
sequence
Ia Va, f
Vca Ia, f
Vab, f
UPF position
of Ia Ia, f
Vb, f
Trip
Ic MTA line Forward fault
Ib
Restrain
Vc Vbc Vb
Vbc, f t
Vbc, f
(a) Phasor diagram during a-b fault
Vbc, pre-fault

Ia Directional
relay Trip Ia, f
Vbc MTA = t Reverse fault

(c) Phasor relationships during UPF load, forward and

(b) Correct energization of phase a directional relay reverse fault for phase a directional relay
with Ia and Vbc resulting in the 90° connection energized by Ia and Vbc (the 90° connection).

Figure 2.26 Correct energization of directional relay: 90° connection.

The 30° and the 60° connections

As already pointed out there are other possibilities for energizing the voltage coils of
directional relays. However, all the possible voltages may not meet the requirement of no
maloperations. Hence, the choice has been narrowed down to three. The other two
possible voltages, for phase a directional relay, are Vac and (Vac + Vbc). These are known
as the 30° and the 60° connections because of the angular relationship between the unity
power factor (UPF) position of Ia and these voltages during the pre-fault condition.
Table 2.4 summarizes various combinations of voltages and currents to be fed to
directional phase fault relays catering to phase faults involving the three phases, for the
90°, 30° and 60° connections.

Table 2.4 Summary of phase fault relay excitation

Type of Phase faults Phase faults Phase faults

connection involving phase, a involving phase, b involving phase, c
Current Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage
90° Ia Vbc Ib Vca Ic Vab
30° Ia Vac Ib Vba Ic Vcb
60° Ia Vac + Vbc Ib Vba + Vca Ic Vcb + Vab
52 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Directional ground fault protection

The directional ground fault relay develops correct tripping tendency when fed by the
residual current I0 and residual voltage V0. This is shown in Figure 2.27.

Ea
Phase
sequence

Va = Ea – I aZS
If = 3I0

Ec = Vc Eb = Vb

(a) Phasor diagram for a-g fault

Ea
Restrain
Va
Vb Trip
3I0, forward

3I0, reverse
t Vc

3V0 Eb = Vb
Ec = Vc

MTA line
(b) Phasor relationships between actuating quantities during forward and reverse faults

Ground fault

(Va + Vb + Vc) = 3V0 Directional

relay Trip
(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 3I0 MTA = t

(c) Directional ground fault relay energized by residual voltage and current

Figure 2.27 Directional ground fault relay energization.

2.9.4 Directional OC Protection of a Three-phase Feeder

Figure 2.28 shows a three-phase feeder protected by directional relays supervised by OC
relays.
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 53

n : 1 Ia

Ea

Eb
Ia /n
Ib
Ec

Ib /n Ic
Ia /n
Ic /n
Phase fault
Trip Rc OC relays
Ra, Rc
Vbc Vab

Vab Vbc 3V0

Phase fault directional

OC relays R a, Rc
Rg, dir
Trip
coil 3V0

Rc, dir 3I0

Ra, dir
Rc, OC
Ra, OC Ground fault OC
relay Rg
Trip
contacts
Rg, OC

Figure 2.28 Complete scheme for directional OC protection of a three-phase feeder.

2.9.5 Directional Protection under Non-fault Conditions (Reverse

Power Relay)
There are situations where directional relays have to be used under non-fault conditions.
Such an application of directional relay exists in reverse power protection of a turbo-
alternator. To distinguish between the two, let us call these directional relays as power
directional relay.
These situations are different from those where directional relays are applied during
fault conditions in the manner that, in case of the power relays, there is no collapse of
system voltage. Directional relays for short circuit protection are so connected that they
develop maximum operating torque under fault conditions. However, directional power
relays are so connected that they develop maximum torque when direction of power flow
reverses.
54 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Consider a power relay with an MTA of 30° Figure (2.29). In order to be used as a
power relay it can be fed with Ia and Vca.
It can be seen that Ia leads Vca by 30° during reverse power flow, thus developing
maximum tripping torque.
Ia
Vac
Forward 30°
power Power directional relay
No trip
a
Reverse
power I2 Trip Vca
Vca Directional relay
Trip
Ia MTA = 30°
n
c b
Figure 2.29 Connections of a power directional relay with MTA of 30°.

2.10 Drawbacks of Over-current Relays

The reach and operating time of the over-current relay depend upon the magnitude of
fault current. The fault current that would result in case of a fault at a particular location
depends upon:
1. The type of fault, i.e. whether it is a ground fault or a phase fault.
2. The source impedance as shown in Figure 2.30.

ZS

L-G
ZS Æ Large Fault L-L-G
Inverse time
ZS Æ Small OC relay L-L-G

Reach
L-G fault Three-phase fault

ZS increases ZS decreases
Operating time of
over-current relay

ZS increases

ZS decreases

Fault location

Figure 2.30 Fault current and reach is a function of fault type and source impedance.
 Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines 55

Since neither the type of fault nor the source impedance is predictable, the reach of
the over-current relay keeps on changing depending upon the source conditions and the
type of fault. Thus, even though the relays are set with great care, since their reach is
subject to variations, they are likely to suffer from loss of selectivity. Such a loss of
selectivity can be tolerated to some extent in the low-voltage distribution systems, where
the only objective to be met is the continuity of supply to the consumer. However in EHV
interconnected system (grid), loss of selectivity can lead to danger to the stability of the
power system, in addition to large disruptions to loads. Therefore, over-current relays
cannot be relied upon as a primary means of protection in EHV systems.
Another principle of relaying, known as distance measurement, offers a much more
accurate reach, which is independent of source conditions and type of fault. This is
discussed in Chapter 6.

2.11 An Illustrative Numerical Problem

Problem (a) Decide the settings of the phase fault IDMT over-current relays for the
three-phase radial distribution system shown in the single line diagram of Figure 2.31 so
that all the protection objectives are met. The maximum and minimum values of phase
fault currents for faults at various buses are as shown in the figure.
(b) With the settings found in (a), verify that selectivity is maintained between relays
at buses A and B, under all fault conditions.

BUS A B C D
Ifmin 22 kA 11 kA 5 kA 4 kA
Ifmax 35 kA 20 kA 10 kA –

Figure 2.31 Illustrative problem on IDMT relay setting on a radial feeder.

The following design data may be used:

1. Allowable overload 15%
2. Type of over-current relays Standard IDMT
3. Continuous current rating of relay current coil 1 A
4. Relay overshoot 5%
5. Circuit breaker operating time 0.4 s
56 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Solution We first find out the current ratings of all the CTs as shown in the spreadsheet
shown below:
CT, C and Relay RC CT, B and Relay RB CT, A and Relay RA
Load current (99 + 234 + 536) = 869 A (869 + 218 + 652) = 1739 A (1739 + 348 + 522) = 2609 A
Load current with 15% 1.15 ¥ 869 A = 999.35 A 1.15 ¥ 1739 = 1999.85 A 1.15 ¥ 2609 = 3000.35 A
overload
Maximum continuous CT 999.35 A 1999.85 A 3000.35 A
primary current
CT primary rating in amperes 1000 A {Answer} 2000 A {Answer} 3000 A {Answer}
(see note # 1 below)
CT secondary rating in 1.0 A {Answer} 1.0 A {Answer} 1.0 A {Answer}
amperes (see note #2 below)
CT ratio 1000 2000 3000
Let us do the relay plug setting Plug setting of relay Plug setting of relay Plug setting of relay
at 100% RC = 1 A {Answer}. Hence RB = 1 A {Answer}. Hence RA = 1 A {Answer}. Hence
plug setting on primary basis plug setting on primary basis plug setting on primary basis
is = 1000 ¥ 1 A =1000 A is = 2000 ¥ 1 A = 2000 A is = 3000 ¥ 1 A = 3000 A

Note #1 We will not get CTs with primary current rating of 999.35 A, etc. in the market.
Normally CTs with primary current ratings which are in multiples of 50 A and
100 A are readily available. Hence, we choose the nearest multiple of 100 A as
the primary rating of the CT. Hence, we choose 1000 A, 2000 A and 3000 A as
the primary ratings of the CTs.
Note #2 Since we have decided to use 1 A relays, i.e. the continuous current rating of
the relay current coil is rated at 1 A, we choose the secondary current rating
of all the CTs as 1 A.
Having decided the CT ratings and relay plug settings, let us proceed to find the TMS for
all the relays. We start from the tail end and make the last relay the fastest by setting
its TMS at 0.1. (Depending upon the relay technology, i.e. if the relay is a digital relay,
we can go in for even lower values of TMS.)
The TMS settings can be done in a tabular fashion as shown in the following
spreadsheet:
 TMS Settings

Condition Relay Fault CT Ratio Irelay PS PSM TMS = top = Fault Clearing FCT
Current PSM 0.02 − 1 0.14(TMS) Time (FCT) ¥ 1.05
top
0.14 PSM0.02 − 1
C1 C2 C3 =C1/C2 C4 C5 =C3/C4 C6 C7 C 8 = C 7 + CBOT C9 = 1.05C8
= C7 + 0.4
Max. fault
at bus C RC 10 kA 1000 10 A 1 A 10 0.1 (setting) 0.297 0.697 0.732
Max. fault
at bus C RB 10 kA 2000 5 A 1 A 5Æ 0.17 {Answer} ¨0.732
Max. fault
at bus B RB 20 kA 2000 10 A 1 A 10 0.170 0.505 0.905 0.950
Max. fault
at bus B RA 20 kA 3000 6.66 A 1 A 6.66Æ 0.2622 {Answer} ¨0.950

Selectivity Check
Min. fault
at bus C RC 5 kA 1000 5 A 1 A 5 0.1 0.428 0.828 0.869
Min. fault
at bus C RB 5 kA 2000 2.5 A 1 A 2.5 0.170 1.28 —
1.28 > 0.869. Hence selectivity between RC
and RB is maintained.
Min. fault
at bus B RB 11 kA 2000 5.5 A 1 A 5.5 0.170 0.686 1.08 1.14
Min. fault
at bus B RA 11 kA 3000 3.66 A 1 A 3.66 0.2622 1.39
1.39 > 1.14. Hence selectivity between RB
and RA is maintained.
Over-current Protection of Transmission Lines
57
58 Fundamentals of Power System Protection

Summary of results:

Relay RA Relay RB Relay RC

Characteristics Standard IDMT Standard IDMT Standard IDMT
Rating of current coil 1 A 1 A 1 A
Rating of associated CT 3000 A/1 A 2000 A/1 A 1000 A/1 A
Ratio of associated CT 3000 2000 1000
Plug setting (PS) 1 A (100%) 1 A (100%) 1 A (100%)
Time multiplier setting (TMS) 0.26 0.17 0.1

Review Questions
1. What are the necessary conditions for two alternating fluxes acting on a common
rotor (a) to produce some torque and (b) to produce maximum torque?
2. What are the situations where DTOC relays are preferred over IDMT relays?
3. What is the difference between plug setting and pick-up value of an OC relay?
4. What are the drawbacks of using DTOC relays for the protection of long feeders?
5. Why does the fault current vary between a minimum and a maximum at any
location?
6. The generator impedance does not affect the fault current to a great extent in the
low-voltage distribution system. Explain.
7. Explain the overshoot time of a relay and its significance.
8. What do you mean by loss of selectivity between two OC relays in adjoining line
sections? What are its causes?
9. While setting the pick-up value, the minimum fault current at the end of the
adjoining feeder needs to be considered; but while setting the TMS the maximum
fault current at the beginning of the next section needs to be considered. Explain.
10. What do you mean by an OC relay, supervised by a directional element?
11. What is the meaning of the term ‘directional’ vis á vis directional relaying?
12. What is meant by maximum torque angle vis á vis a directional relay?
13. How will you adjust the MTA of a directional relay?
14. What is the difference between the reverse power relay and the directional relay?
15. Why polarizing voltage from a healthy phase is used in three-phase directional
relays?
16. While different connections like 90°, 30°, and 60° exist in case of directional phase
fault relays, why is it that no such connections exist for directional ground fault
relays?
17. What are the situations where there is no need to use directional OC relays and
the situations where directional relays must be used?
18. Give the procedure for time setting of relays on a ring main feeder system.