SITE INVESTIGATION
In A Client's Guide to Site Investigation the AGS (Association of
Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Specialists) states that adequate site
investigation is of importance to the civil engineer for the successful
completion of any building project.
The design of a structure which is economical and safe to construct, is
durable and has low maintenance costs, depends upon an adequate
understanding of the nature of the ground.
This understanding comes from an appreciation of the distribution of the
materials in the ground, and their properties and behaviour under various
influences and constraints during the construction and lifetime of the
structure.
An adequate and properly structured site investigation is therefore an
essential part of any civil engineering or building project.
The process of site investigation can be separated into the following areas:
a) Objectives of Site Investigation (SI).
b) Desk study.
c) Site Reconnaissance.
d) Planning.
e) Ground investigation (GI).
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I. Trial Pits
II. Boreholes
III. Sampling
f)Reporting
Purpose and Objectives of Site Investigation
The primary objective of a site investigation is to determine as accurately as
may required:-
a) Suitability: Are the site and surroundings suitable for the building or any
other project?
To access the general suitability of the site.
b) Design: Obtain all the design parameters necessary for the works.
To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works.
To design for the failed structures or remedial measures for the structures
deemed to be unsafe
c) Construction: Are there any potential ground or ground water
conditions that would affect the construction?
To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction
due to ground and other local conditions.
To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil
and rock, which may affect the design and mode of construction of proposed
structure and foundation?
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To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and
water on foundation material.
The nature and sequence of strata;
The ground water conditions at the site;
The physical properties of soil and rock underlying the site;
The mechanical properties, such as strength and compressibility of different
soil or rock strata
d) Materials: Are there any materials available on site, what quantity and
quality?
To find out the sources of construction material and selection of sites for
disposal of water or surplus material.
e) Effect of changes: How will the design affect adjacent properties and the
ground water?
To ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures.
Other specific information, when needed, such as, the chemical
composition of the groundwater, and the characteristics of foundations of
adjacent structure.
f) Identify Alternatives: Is this the best location?
To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and manmade changes
in conditions and the results arising from such changes.
In addition to these, it is necessary to investigate existing features such as
slopes. If there is a failure of such a feature then it is necessary to
investigate the failure and suggest remedial works.
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g) Site investigation should be organized to obtain all possible information
toward a thorough understanding of the subsurface condition and
probable foundation behavior.
Background Information before Subsurface Investigation
Before actual field investigation is started, information should, whenever
possible, be collected on:
i. The type of structure to be built, its intended use;
ii. Characteristics of the structure;
iii. Starting date;
iv. Intended construction method;
v. Estimated period of construction;
vi. The probable soil condition at the site, by geological, geotechnical or aerial
analysis;
vii. The behavior of existing structures adjacent to the site, as well as other
facts available through local experience.
Extent of Soil Investigation
Subsurface condition at a site may be relatively uniform or extremely
variable and will largely determine the complexity of the problems to be
faced in both design and construction of the foundations.
The subsurface investigation must be therefore be of sufficient extent to
provide enough information for a thorough understanding of the
interaction of proposed foundations and supporting soil or rock on which to
base a safe and economical design.
Depth of Site Investigation
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The site investigation should be carried to such a depth that the entire zone
of soil or rock affected by the changes caused by the building or the
construction will be adequately explored.
This may be taken as a depth at which vertical stress induced by the new
construction is smaller than 10% of the existing overburden stress at that
level.
Where the depth of investigation cannot be related to background
information, the following guidelines are suggested.
It is good to have at least one boring carried to bedrock, or to well below
the anticipated level of influence of the building.
For light structures, insensitive to settlement, the boring should be to a
depth equal to four times the probable footing width or to a depth of 6m
below the lowest part of the foundation, whichever is deeper.
For more heavily loaded structures, such as multistory structures and for
framed structures, at least 50% of the borings should be extended to a
depth equal to 1.5 times the width of the building below the lowest part of
the foundation, and
Bedrock should be proved by coring into it to a minimum depth of 3m.
2. Stages of Soil Investigation
The approach adopted for a particular site investigation, its extent and the
techniques used will all depend upon the site-specific circumstances, and
the experience and judgment of those involved.
There is no single way to carry out an investigation, and inevitably different
advisors will adopt different approaches for any particular project.
However, it is usual for the site investigation to be a phased exercise.
For any project soil investigation is usually performed is several stages, i.e.,
a) during feasibility and planning stage,
b) before construction and
c) during construction (if required).
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These are termed as:
a) Preliminary investigation;
b) Detailed investigation;
c) Supplementary investigation and construction control.
Preliminary Site Investigation
This phase includes gathering information such as the type of structure to
be constructed and its future use, the requirements of local building codes,
and the column and load bearing wall loads.
Considerable savings in the exploration program can sometimes be realized
if the geotechnical engineer in charge of the project thoroughly reviews the
existing information regarding the subsoil conditions at the site under
consideration.
Useful information can be obtained from the following sources.
1. Geologic survey maps.
2. County soil survey maps prepared by the G.O.K. department of Agriculture
and the soil conservation service.
3. Soil manuals published by the state highway department.
4. Existing soil exploration reports prepared for the construction of nearby
structures.
5. The engineer should visually inspect the site and the surrounding area.
In many cases, the information gathered from such a trip is invaluable for
future planning.
The type of vegetation at a site may in some instances influence the type of
subsoil that will be encountered.
Open cuts near the site provide an indication about the subsoil
stratification.
Cracks in the existing wall of nearby structures may indicate settlement
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from the possible existence of soft clay layers or the presence of expansive
clay soils.
Detailed Site Investigation
This phase consists of making several test borings at the site and collecting
disturbed and undisturbed soil samples from various depths for visual
observation and for laboratory tests.
No hard and first rule exists for determining the number of borings or the
depth to which the test boring are to be advanced.
For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and one at the center
should provide a start.
Depending on the uniformity of the subsoil, additional test borings may be
made.
The test borings should extend through unsuitable foundation materials to
firm soil layers.
Supplementary Investigation and Construction Control
The following supplementary investigation is made to give a full picture of
the site investigation of soil as well as the structure.
1. Any special features such as the possibility of each quakes or climatic
factors such as flooding, seasonal swelling and shrinkage, permafrost, or
soil erosion.
2. The availability and quality of local constructional materials such as
concrete aggregates, building and road stone, and water for constructional
purposes.
3. For maritime or river structures information on normal spring and neap tide
ranges, extreme high and low tidal ranges and river levels, seasonal river
levels and discharges, velocity of the tidal and river currents and other
hydrographic and meteorological data.
4. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples appropriate to the
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particular foundation design or construction problems.
5. Results of chemical analysis on soil, fill materials, and ground water to
determine possible deleterious effects on foundation structures.
6. Results of chemical and bacteriological analysis on contaminated soils, fill
materials and emissions to determine health hazard risks.
The sequence of a site investigation is as follows:
a) Desk Study
b) Site Reconnaissance
c) Preliminary report or feasibility study
d) Preliminary Ground Investigation - Planning of main GI
e) Preliminary report
f) Main Ground Investigation
g) Laboratory testing
h) Final report
Desk Study
The desk study is work taken up prior to commencing the work on site and
the Ground Investigation.
It should always be the first stage of the Site Investigation and is used to
plan the Ground Investigation.
The work involves researching the site to gain as much information as
possible, both geological and historical.
a) A good starting point is to use OS maps. These allow the site to pinpointed
and an accurate grid reference to be obtained.
a) This permits much more accurate references on the geological maps used
later.
b) In addition to present maps, historical maps are used.
These are stored in the National museum and allow much information to be
obtained such as former uses of the site; concealed mine workings; infilled
ponds; old clay, gravel and sand pits; disused quarries; changes in
topography and drainage; changes in stream and river courses; coastal
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erosion; changes in potential landslide areas.
b) Geological Maps and memoirs are probably the most important source of
information as these give an excellent indication of the sort of ground
conditions likely to be encountered.
c) Ariel Photography is another extremely useful source of information, with
almost all of Kenya being covered at a 1:25,000 scale and much at a smaller
scale.
These records can be obtained from one of several sources such as the
Ordnance Survey, the Department of the Environment, local authorities and
air-survey firms.
Such records can be extremely useful in ascertaining historical use of the
site, hidden foundations, changes of river course and much other hidden
data.
d) Records of Previous SI reports are also helpful in a desk study. The many
sources of SI data include previous company reports, BGS index of
boreholes and the recently formed Association of Geotechnical data
exchange for SI data.
e) Services records are also an essential part of the desk study, necessary to
locate hidden services such as electricity cables, sewers and telephone
wires.
This information is usually provided free of charge by the relevant service
provider. A suggested list of sources is: Local Authority; British Telecom;
Electricity Company; British Gas; Water Companies.
f) It is also essential to check for the location of former mine workings as
these can considerably affect construction and lead to cost increases.
The location of these mines may be difficult but help can be found from the
Divisional Plans Record Offices of the National Coal Board.
g) The Director of Land Use Survey provides a useful survey of land use, if
other sources are not available.
h) The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food in London supply maps
detailing the relative value of land for agricultural use. These can be useful
when planning the route of a highway.
i) In addition to these sources, other help may be found from University
Engineering departments, Admiralty charts and local inhabitants.
It is essential when conducting a desk study that as much information as
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possible is obtained.
Work at this stage of the Investigation saves much time later and vastly
improves the planning and quality of the Investigation.
Site Reconnaissance
The Site Reconnaissance phase of a site investigation is normally in the
form of a walk over survey of the site. Important evidence to look for is:
a) Hydrogeology: Wet marshy ground, springs or seepage, ponds or streams
and Wells.
b) Slope Instability: Signs of slope instability include bent trees, hummocks on
the ground and displaced fences or drains.
c) Mining: The presence of mining is often signs of subsidence and possibly
disused mine shafts. Open cast mining is indicated by diverted streams
replaced or removed fence/hedge lines.
d) Access: It is essential that access to the site can be easily obtained. Possible
problems include low overhead cables and watercourses.
Planning A Site Investigation
The main investigation is the full investigation of the site using boreholes
and trial pits and includes the preparation of the site-investigation report
with revised plans and sections, interpretation and recommendations for
design."
It is considered that there are two aspects to the site investigation.
i. The geological structure and
ii. Character of the site and the testing of the soil both in the laboratory and
in-situ.
They suggest that the planning should consider the following questions.
1. Is the succession of strata known over the whole site and is there
correlation across the whole site known?
What measurements of depth dip and outcrop are required to clarify the
stratigraphy?
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Should any key measurements, such as depth to bedrock or peat, be made?
2. Are the different strata fairly homogeneous over the site or do local
variations exist?
Are there more complex areas of strata that require investigation or closer
examination during construction?
Will there be areas where the excavated material will be unsuitable for fill
and will need to be replaced?
Are there areas where needs to be assessed to ascertain working methods?
3. Are there ground structures that need closer examination - for example the
extent of disturbed strata, the location and extent of natural cavities and
mine workings, their liability to cause subsidence or movement, the extent
and depth of surface movement and instability?
Are there other phenomenons likely to give rise to instability such as
fractures and river crossings or alluvial areas that may have buried soft
material or peat?
Are there likely to be any undetected structures?
4. Will any part of the route be subject to flooding?
What contact will there be with water bearing strata and will ground water
lowering methods be required during construction?
5. Do requirements for the carrying out of special in-situ tests or the taking of
undisturbed samples affect the conduct of the qualitative investigation?
For example, with forethought a single trial pit may be made to serve both
for examining ground materials and structure, and for the in-situ testing
and the taking of block samples.
These questions should be asked for the whole route, and must be related
to the proposed geometry of the road and it's structure.
Investigations must be carried out to the depth at which ground conditions
cease to affect the work.
The more complex the situation, the more extensive the investigation will
need to be.
The investigation must then be planned to answer the above questions and
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associated problems.
As much information should be obtained from the points examined as each
point is expensive.
These are frequently used to clarify the interpretation of the site as a
whole. Bridge sites, high embankments and deep cuttings are all points of
engineering complexity and should be examined thoroughly.
Ground Investigation
Ground investigation is taken to be that other than the information
available from the walk over survey as discussed previously.
There are two principal methods of investigating the ground conditions,
trial pits and boreholes.
In addition, the reader should be aware of geophysical techniques such as
seismic surveys, which are not discussed here.
Trial Pits
Trial pits are shallow excavations going down to a depth no greater 6m.
The trial pit as such is used extensively at the surface for block sampling
and detection of services prior to borehole excavation.
Depth Excavation Method
0-2m By Hand
2-4m Wheeled Back Hoe
4-6m Hydraulic Excavator
An important safety point to note is that ALL pits below a depth of 1.2m
must be supported.
In addition care should be taken as gases such as methane and carbon
dioxide can build up in a trial pit.
Breathing apparatus must therefore be used if no gas detection equipment
is available.
Support for a trial pit generally takes one of three forms:
i. Timbering
ii. Steel frames with hydraulic jacks
iii. Battered or tapered sides
Three types of sample can be taken from a trial pit:
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a) Disturbed Sample - Samples where the soils in-situ properties are not
retained.
b) Block Sample - A sample that is not undisturbed but retains some in-situ
properties.
c) Push in tube sample - Tube samples of the soil in a trial pit.
When preparing a trial pit log, the following information should be
included. The location, orientation and size of the pit; sketches of faces;
depth scale; root structure; water level; seepage.
In addition the weather at the time of sampling should be noted as many
soils are weather dependant.
It is extremely important when finished to reinstate the trial pit as well as
possible.
Boreholes
A bore hole is used to determine the nature of the ground (usually below 6
m depth) in a qualitative manner and then recover undisturbed samples for
quantitative examination.
Where this is not possible, for in gravelly soils below the water table, in-situ
testing methods are used.
Obviously the information gained from a borehole is an extremely limited
picture of the subsurface structure.
It is therefore essential to compare the results obtained with those that
could have been expected from the desk study.
The greater the number of boreholes the more certain it is possible to be of
the correlation and thus to trust in the results.
The two principal types of boring machine used for Site Investigation in the
Kenya are light percussive and drilling machines.
1. Light Percussive is the process of making boreholes by striking the soil then
removing it and the most common method is the shell and auger.
This is a general term to describe various tools suspended from a triangular
tripod incorporating a power winch.
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The tools are repeatedly dropped down the borehole while suspended by
wire from the power winch.
The different tools used include:
a) Clay Cutter - Used in cohesive materials and is raised and lowered, using it's
own weight to cut into the material.
b) Shell - Used for boring in silts and sands. Similar to the clay cutter, but has a
trap door at the bottom to catch material.
c) Chisel - Used for breaking up hard material such as boulders or rocks.
Additional payment is required for chiseling as per the Bill of Quantities and
permission is normally required from the Resident Engineer before work
can start.
2. Drilling is the process of boring normally by using a combination of a
rotating action and a hydraulic ram.
There are many different types of rig depending on access and type of
ground expected.
Hollow drilling rods enable a flush of water, air, foam or mud which is used
to carry the cuttings to the surface as well as lubricating and cooling the
drill bit.
The three main types of drill bit are:
a) Double tube is where the outer tube rotates and allows for the removal of
the cuttings while the inner tube is stationary and prevents the core from
shearing.
There are different designs of tube varying the location of the flush
discharge so as to prevent sample erosion.
It is necessary for the hole to be bigger than the tube and so the diamond
bits are attached to the outside of the hole, thus allowing the flush to
return to the surface.
b) Triple tube incorporates a third tube to protect the core even further
during extrusion and can have either a split tube, which is removed, or a
plastic tube to provide longer term protection.
A less effective alternative is to incorporate a nylon liner in a double tube.
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c) Retractable triple tube is a variation where the inner tube is attached to a
retractor and can extend beyond the cutting edge.
This gives complete protection to the core in softer rock whilst in harder
rock where this is not necesary, it retracts to become a standard triple
tube.
This is used in alternating soft/hard rock, typical of a weathered profile.
Core bits are usually diamond tipped and are either surface set, where
diamonds are mounted into a matrix, or impregnated where a fine
diamond dust is used in the matrix.
In softer rocks, the cuttings can clog up the matrix so the softer the rock,
the larger the diamonds need to be. Tungsten carbide bits can also be used
in the softer rocks.
Sampling
Sampling can be either undisturbed, of which in-situ testing is a form, or
disturbed.
The principal sampling methods used in boreholes are:
a) SPT test: This is a dynamic test as described in BS1377 (Part 9) and is a
measure of the density of the soil.
The test incorporates a small diameter tube with a cutting shoe known as
the 'split barrel sampler' of about 650mm length, 50mm external diameter
and 35mm internal diameter.
The sampler is forced into the soil dynamically using blows from a 63.5kg
hammer dropped through 760mm.
The sampler is forced 150mm into the soil then the number of blows
required to lower the sampler each 75mm up to a depth of 300mm is
recorded.
This is known as the "N" value. For coarse gravels the split barrel is replaced
by a 60 degree cone.
b) Core Sample: Core samples must be sealed with paraffin to maintain the
water conditions and then end sealed to prevent physical interference.
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The most common of these is the U100 (see below) although other sizes
from 54mm to 100mm diameter are used.
The standard U100 has a sample area ratio of 30% so large amounts of soil
are displaced. A thin walled Piston Sampler reduces this to 10%.
The sample is pushed or jacked into the ground as opposed to a dynamic
action.
c) U100: This is a 450mm long, 100mm diameter undisturbed sample. The
tube has a cutter at one end and the driving equipment at the other.
Behind the cutter is a core catcher, incorporating 3 arms that go into the
sample as it is withdrawn, to prevent the sample from falling out.
Care should be taken to ensure that the cutting shoe is as clean and sharp
as possible.
d) Bulk Samples: Usually taken from trial pits or in soils where there is little or
no cohesion. Often called block samples.
e) Water Samples: Water samples should be taken as soon as water is first
struck and the depth recorded.
After a suitable period of time (usually 10-15 mins) the depth should be re-
recorded and a further sample taken.
A final sample should be taken at the end of the borehole and the depth to
water regularly recorded.
The sample is taken using a device known as a bailer, made from teflon or
plastic it incrporates a float to trap the water and should be cleaned after
each sample.
The sampling procedure varies according to the type of strata in which the
investigation takes place. A reccomended sampling procedure is listed
below.
Clays:
Normally need undisturbed samples
U100 every 1.5m or change of stratum. Blow count and penetration should
be noted.
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If unable to obtain a U100 then bulk samples as above.
If U100 does not full penetrate SPT test is required.
Sands & Gravels:
Undisturbed samples are not practical due to the lack of cohesion.
SPT every 1m or change of stratum. Number of seating blows should also
be recorded.
Bulk samples to be taken between SPT's.
Silts:
Alternate SPT and U100 samples at 0.75m intervals
Rock
SPT on penetrating rock, every 1m and change of stratum where possible
In softer rocks (Chalks, Marls) U100 may be possible
Rock must be penetrated at least 1.5m to ensure it isn't a large cobble
Obtain permission from Resident Engineer before pulling off-site
If SPT refusal (>50 blows) record number of blows and penetration
Reporting
The Site Investigation report for a highway design scheme should answer all
the questions set out in the planning phase of the Investigation.
. This should include an assessment of the viability of the proposed route
and indication of any alternatives.
Included in the report should be a location of all the boreholes, trial pits,
other excavations and their logs.
These logs should give as much information as possible on the soil and rock
structure as it is possible to obtain.
The soil and rock descriptions should be as defined in BS5930 and should
contain the information described below:
Soil Description - Often remembered using the acronym MCCSSOW
obviously!
a) Moisture Content - Dry, slightly moist, moist, very moist or wet. Not the
measured value just the way it appears in the hand.
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b) Colour - This is an indicator of chemical and mineralogical content. Charts
are available but not often used.
c) Consistency - Loose or dense and other descriptions dependant on soil
type. An approximate relationship can be made between stiffness and
undrained shear strength (Cu) and between density and the SPT 'N' Values.
Cu SPT 'N' Value
Very Soft <20 Very Loose <4
Soft 20-40 Loose 4-10
Firm 40-75 Medium dense 10-30
75-
Stiff Dense 30-50
150
Very stiff >150 Very dense >50
d) Structure - Bedding laminates fissure, joints, fractures, shear zones etc.
e) Soil Type - Given by particle sizes as described in BS5930 Table 6
f) Origin - Try and identify geological area and stratographic unit. This is
difficult and often impossible
g) Groundwater Conditions - Depth to groundwater and any other
observations.
Rock Descriptions - The acronym makers came up with CGTSWROS in a
moment of inspiration
a) Colour - Same terminology as for soils with principal and secondary
b) Grain Size - Range of sizes present and the dominant sizes.
c) Texture & Fabric - Porphyritic, crystalline, granular, glassy, amourphous,
homogeneous and many more as described in BS5930 Table 9.
d) Structure - Dependant on the type of rock, reference should be made to
BS5930 Table 9. Discontinuities in the rock can be caused by the drilling
action, weathered surfaces indicate natural and clean surface indicate
recent fractures.
e) Weathering - Engineers grade from 1-6 with 1 being fresh and 6 being
residual soil with all the rock converted to soil.
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f) Rock Type - Reference should be made to BS5930 Table 9.
g) Other Stratographic information, geological period, presence of fossils or
coral seams.
h) Strength - Defined as below from field observations.
Point Load
Cu
Term Field recognition Strength
(MPa)
(MPa)
Rocks Ring on hammer
Extremely
blows. >200 >12
Strong
Sparks fly
Lumps only chip by heavy
100-
Very Strong hammer blows. Dull 6-12
200
ringing sound
Lumps or core broken by 50-
Strong 3-6
heavy hammer blow 100
Moderately Lump or core broken by 12.5-
0.75-3
Strong light hammer blow 50
Moderately Thin slabs broken by heavy
5-12.5 0.3-0.75
weak hand pressure
Thin slabs break easily in
Weak 1.25-5 0.075-0.3
hand
Very Weak Crumbles in hand <1.25 <0.075
Can be indented by thumb
Very Stiff >0.3
nail
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