Module 2

Physical Layer
2.1 Introduction to Communication Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2 Guided Transmission Media: Twisted pair, Coaxial, Fiber optics.

Introduction to Communication:
A data communications system has five components:
I. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.

Electromagnetic Spectrum:
The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire range of electromagnetic radiation according to the
wavelength or frequencies. It has a range of frequencies from 1Hz to Hz. The waves in order of
increasing frequencies are radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, UV rays, X-rays and
gamma rays.Among these range, the frequencies between Hz to Hz are used for communication.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 The following diagram shows the electromagnetic spectrum. The first figure gives the full range of
frequency spectrum while the second figure elaborates that part of the spectrum which can be used for
data communication −

The section of the spectrum in the range of radio waves and microwaves has been divided into a number
of frequency bands as officially referred by ITU (International Telecommunication Union). These
bands are rated from VLF (Very Low Frequency) to EHF (Extremely High Frequency).

The frequency bands and their uses in communication is tabulated as follows −

Band Frequenc
Full Forms Propagation Uses
Name y Range

ELF Extremely 30 – 300Hz Ground Power line frequencies

Low
Frequency

LF Low Frequency 3 – 300 KHz Ground Marine Communications,

communication over
twisted pair

MF Medium 300KHz – Sky AM radio, communication

Frequency 3MHz over coaxial cables

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 HF High Frequency 3 – 30 MHz Sky Aircraft and ship
communications

VHF Very High 30 – 300 MHz Sky and Line – of FM radio, TV

Frequency - Sight

UHF Ultra High 300 MHz – Line – of - Sight TV, cellular phone
Frequency 3GHz

SHF Super 3 – 30 GHz Line – of - Sight Satellite, microwave links

High
Frequency

EHF Extremely 3 – 300GHz Line – of - Sight Radar, satellite

High
Frequency

Infrared Infrared Rays 300 Ghz – Line – of - Sight Consumer electronic

400THz goods

Visibl Visible Light rays 400 THz – 900 Line – of - Sight Fiber optic
e Light THz communications

Transmission Medium:
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to
a destination.

Classes of transmission media:

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the
other is used only as a ground reference.

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable: The most common twisted-pair cable used in
communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided
mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the
quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)
Applications:
● Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
● Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
Coaxial Cable:

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable. coax
has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usuallycopper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The
outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which
completes the circuit.This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover.

The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNe), connector.
Applications:
● Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital telephone networks.
● Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
● Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs.

Fiber-Optic Cable:
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Light travels in
a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance(of a different
density), the ray changes direction.
Bending of light ray:

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a
cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Propogation Modes:

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different
paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core, as shown in Figure.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A
beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the
core and the cladding. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to
the distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber. A second type of fiber, called multimode
graded-index fiber, decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers
to the index of refraction.
Single-Mode: Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams
to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Fibre Construction:

The subscriber channel (SC) connector, The straight-tip (ST) connector, MT-RJ(mechanical transfer
registered jack) is a connector.
Applications:
● Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-
effective.
● Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable,thus creating a
hybrid network.
● Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also
use fiber-optic cable.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fiber:
Advantages: Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted pair or coaxial).
● Higher bandwidth.
● Less signal attenuation. Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of
other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need
repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted- pair cable.
● Immunity to electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic
cables.
● Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
● Light weight. Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
● Greater immunity to tapping. Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper
cables. Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
● Installation and maintenance
● Unidirectional light propagation. Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional
communication, two fibers are needed.
● Cost. The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided
media. If the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu