MODULE 1

CRISP SET THEORY

AND LOGIC
SET THEORY
Set Theory is a branch of mathematical logic where we learn sets and their properties.
 Sets: A set is a collection of objects or groups of objects.
Representation of Sets
Sets can be represented in two ways:
1. Roster Form or Tabular form
2. Set Builder Form
Roster Form
In roster form, all the elements of the set are listed, separated by commas and
enclosed between curly braces { }.
Example: If set represents all the leap years between the year 1995 and 2015, then it
would be described using Roster form as:
A ={1996,2000,2004,2008,2012}
Set Builder Form
In set builder form, all the elements have a common property. This property is not applicable to the
objects that do not belong to the set.

Example:
If set S has all the elements which are even prime numbers, it is represented as:
S={ x: x is an even prime number}
where ‘x’ is a symbolic representation that is used to describe the element.
‘:’ means ‘such that’
‘{}’ means ‘the set of all’

Another Example:
F = {p: p is a set of two-digit perfect square numbers}
F = {16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}
TYPES OF SET

• Subsets: When all the elements of set A belong to set B, then A is subset of B
Example:
If set A = {1, 2, 3} and set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then A is a subset of B because every element in A
(1, 2, and 3) is also present in B
• Universal set: Any set that contains all the sets under consideration.
Let's consider an example, Here, A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 3, 7, 9, 11}, and C = {4, 8, 11}. The
universal set U of A, B, and C can be given by U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.
• Empty set: It has no elements
Examples of empty sets include the set of months with 32 days, the set of even prime numbers
greater than 2, or the set of integers between 1 and 2.
SET OPERATIONS
• Union(∪):
The union of two sets A and B, denoted as A ∪ B, is a set containing all
elements that are in A, or in B, or in both.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
• Intersection(∩):
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted as A ∩ B, is a set containing
only the elements that are common to both A and B.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then A ∩ B = {3}.
• Difference(-)
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted as A - B, is a set containing all
elements that are in A but not in B.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, then A - B = {1, 2}.
• Complement ('):
The complement of a set A (with respect to a universal set U), denoted as A',
is a set containing all elements in U that are not in A.
Example: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {1, 2}, then A' = {3, 4, 5}.
LAWS OF SET THEORY

1. Commutative Laws:
Union:
A ∪ B = B ∪ A (The order of sets in a union doesn't change the result)
Intersection:
A ∩ B = B ∩ A (The order of sets in an intersection doesn't change the result)

2. Associative Laws:
Union:
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (When combining three or more sets with unions, the grouping doesn't matter)
Intersection:
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) (When combining three or more sets with intersections, the grouping doesn't matter)

3. Distributive Laws:
● Union over intersection: A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
● Intersection over union: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
4. Identity Laws:
● Union with empty set: A ∪ ∅ = A (The union of any set with the empty set is the set itself)

● Intersection with universal set: A ∩ U = A (The intersection of any set with the universal set is the set itself)

5. Idempotent Laws:
● Union: A ∪ A = A (The union of a set with itself is the set itself)
● Intersection: A ∩ A = A (The intersection of a set with itself is the set itself)

6. De Morgan's Laws:
Complement of union:
(A ∪ B)' = A' ∩ B' (The complement of the union of two sets is the intersection of their complements)
Complement of intersection:
(A ∩ B)' = A' ∪ B' (The complement of the intersection of two sets is the union of their complements)

7. Absorption Laws:
● Union absorbs intersection: A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A
● Intersection absorbs union: A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC
A Proposition or a statement or logical sentence is a declarative sentence which is either true or false.

○ Jawaharlal Nehru is the first prime minister of India.

○ It rained Yesterday.
○ If x is an integer, then x2 is a +ve integer.

The following statements are not propositions:

○ Please report at 11 a.m. sharp

○ What is your name?
○ x2=13

The lower case letters are used to represent propositions i.e. p, q, r..etc

p: India is in Asia q: 2 + 2 = 4
COMPOUND STATEMENTS
Statements or propositional variables can be combined by means of logical
connectives (operators) to form a single statement called compound statements.

Logical Operators
CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE

Converse:
If p q is conditional statement then
q p is called converse
~p ~ q is called inverse
~q ~p is called Contrapositive
Operations on Propositional logic
Negation Truth Table Conjunction Truth Table Disjunction Truth Table
Implication:
If and only if:
Example
Tautology And Contradiction

A proposition P is a tautology if it is true under all circumstances. It means it contains the only T in
the final column of its truth table.

Prove that the statement (p⟶q) (∼q⟶∼p) is a tautology.

Tautology And Contradiction

A statement that is always false is known as a contradiction.

Show that the statement p ∧∼p is a contradiction.

CONTINGENCY:

A statement that can be either true or false depending on

the truth values of its variables is called a contingency.
Example
PREDICATE LOGIC
• 50 is greater than 100 - False
• 7 is an odd number - True
They are examples of Propositional Logic
• x is greater than 10
• x is an odd number
They are examples of Predicate Logic
PREDICATES
An assertion that contains one or more variables is called a
predicate. Its truth value is predicted after assigning truth
values to its variables.
x+3=5 —----> one - place predicate
x+y ≥10 —----＞2 - place predicate
• P(x) = "x is an even number"
• When x=2, P(2) is True.
• When x=3, P(3) is False.
QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers specify the extent to which a predicate is true over a range of elements.
There are two types of quantifier in predicate logic - Existential Quantifier and
Universal Quantifier.

If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∃x p(x) and read as
"There exists at least one value in the universe of variable x such that p(x) is true. The
quantifier ∃ is called the existential quantifier.

If p(x) is a proposition over the universe U. Then it is denoted as ∀x,p(x) and read as
"For every x∈U,p(x) is true." The quantifier ∀ is called the Universal Quantifier.
UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER

• It is denoted by ‘∀’
• It means “ for all” or “every”

Eg:

‘x is smaller than 10’ can be denoted as P(x).

Domain={1,3,5,7,11}

‘∀ x P(x)’ means for all value of x, x is smaller than 10.

In the above example, for the domain value P(11) the statement value is false. Therefore, ∀ x P(x) →
False
EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIER

• It is denoted by ‘∃’
• It means “there exist” or “ Some” or “any” or “atleast”
Eg:
‘x is smaller than 10’ can be denoted as P(x).
Domain={1,11,50,75,100}
‘∃ x P(x)’ means for some value of x, x is smaller than 10.
In the above example,only for the value P(1) the statement value is true.
Therefore, ∃ x P(x) → True
EXAMPLES ON QUANTIFIERS

P(x,y): x + y = 10
• ∀ x ∃ y P(x,y) : for every integer x there exist an integer y such that x + y =
10 (i.e y = 10 - x), which is true.
• ∃ x ∀ y P(x,y): There exist an integer x so that for all integer y, x + y = 10,
which is false.
• ∃ x ∃ y P(x,y) : There exist integers x and y such that x + y = 10, which is
true.
EXERCISE:

1. “There is a student in this class who is not familiar with C programming”.

Write the negation of the following statement
2. Write in symbol: There exist an x such that x < 4.
TYPES OF MATHEMATICAL PROOFS

• Direct proof
• Proof by contradiction
• Proof by deduction
• Proof by cases
• Proof by exhaustion
• Proof by counterexample
• Mathematical induction
Theorem
If n is an odd integer, then 𝑛2 is an odd integer.
Proof
Since n is an odd integer, there exists an integer k such that
n=2k+1.
Therefore,
𝑛2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑘 2 +4k+1=(2(2k+2))+1

Thus by the definition of an odd integer, we can conclude that 𝑛2 is

an odd integer.
For all integers m and n, if m and n are odd integers then m+n is even integer
Assume m and n are odd integers. Then m and n can be written as
m= 2a+1
n= 2b+1
where a and b are also integers
Then,
m+n = (2a+1)+(2b+1)
= 2a+2b+2
= 2(a+b+1)
Since m+n is twice another integer, viz. a+b+1, m+n is an even integer
Definition:
An integer n is calledDIRECT PROOF
even if and only if there exists an integer k such that
n=2k.
An integer n is called odd if and only if there exists an integer k such that
n=2k+1
 PROOF
 It is a method BY CONTRADICTION
of proving a statement by showing
that its negation leads to contradiction.
 Steps to prove
1. Assume the negation
2. Derive the contradiction
3. Conclude the original statement is true
Theorem
The square √2 is irrational using proof by contradiction
Proof
 Assume that√2 is rational.
This means it can be expressed as a fraction in its simplest form:
√2=a ∕b
where, a and b are integers with no common factors.
 Derive a contradiction
squaring both sides of the equation, we get
2= 𝑎2 ∕ 𝑏2
𝑎2 = 2 𝑏2 ………(1)
meaning 𝑎2 is an even number
Since 𝑎2 is even then a must also be even
Since a is even we can write a=2k, where k is another integer
(1)→
4𝑘 2 = 2𝑏 2
2𝑘 2 = 𝑏2
𝑏2 is also even number. Therefore b must also be even.
But this contradicts our initial assumption that a and b have no common factors, as
both a and b are now shown to be even.
 Conclude the original statement is true
Since our assumption that √2 is rational leads to a contradiction, the assumption
must be false. Therefore √2is irrational.
If 5x + 25y= 1723 then x or y is not an integer
 Assume x and y are real numbers such that 5x+25y=1723
 Assume both x and y are integers.
 By the distributive law,
5(x+5y)=1723.
 Since x and y are integers, this implies 1723 is divisible by
5.
 However integer 1723 is not clearly divisible by 5.
 This contradiction establishes the result
PROOF BY CASES

 A method of mathematical proof where, a statement is

shown to be true by dividing it into a finite number of
cases and proving that it holds true in each of those
cases.
If two integers have same parity, their sum is even
Case 1
odd +odd
num1: 2a+1
num2:2b+1
Then , num1 +num2 =2a+1+2b+1
= 2a+2b+2
=2(a+b+1)
∴it is even
Case 2:
even + even
num1= 2a
num2=2b
Then, num1+num2 =2a+2b
=2(a+b)
∴it is even
EXERCISE

1) Prove that 1 × 1! + 2 × 2! + 3 × 3! + … + n × n! = (n + 1)! – 1 for all

natural numbers using the principles of mathematical induction.
2) Prove that 4n – 1 is divisible by 3 using the principle of mathematical
induction
3) Use the principles of mathematical induction to show that 2 + 4 + 6 + … +
2n = n 2 + n, for all natural numbers
PROOF BY COUNTEREXAMPLE

• Method used to disprove a universal statement by providing a single example where the
statement is false
• It states that the statement can not be universally true.
• Steps
1. Universal Statement
for all x, P(x) is true

1. Finding counterexample
You need to find specific instance (an x) within the domain of statement for which p(x) is false
3. Disproving the statement
If you found even one such counterexample, the universal statement is false because it is not
true for all the cases
EXAMPLE

All prime numbers are odd.

Solution:
1. Statement
All prime numbers are odd
2. Counterexample
The number 2 is prime number but it is not odd. It is even.
3. Therefore, statement all prime numbers are odd is false
PROOF BY DEDUCTION

• It is process in mathematics where we show that statement is true using well-known

mathematical principles.
• Prove that difference between the square of any two consecutive integers is equal to
sum of these integers
Solution:
let, n and n+1 be two consecutive integers
square of both the numbers
𝑛2 , 𝑛2 +2n+1
Subtracting the squares
𝑛2 +2n+1- 𝑛2
= 2n+1
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
SOLVED PROBLEM
Example 1: Prove that the sum of cubes of n natural numbers is equal to ( [n(n+1)]/2) 2 for all n
natural numbers.
EXAMPLE 2:
Show that 1 + 3 + 5 + … + (2n−1) = n2
Show that 2 2n-1 is divisible by 3 using the principles of
mathematical induction.
Step 1:

Step 2:
Step 3: