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SRI RAMAKRISHNA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Course Objectives

20ME2E02 On successful completion of the course, the student will be able to

Computer Aided Design
CO 1 Summarize the features of CAD

Semester - 5 CO 2 Outline the transformations of geometric entities.

B.E Mechanical Engineering CO 3 Illustrate the wire frame, surface and solid modeling techniques.
Describe interference and tolerance analysis to translate
CO 4
Academic Year : 2025-26 geometric models of assemblies.
REVISED REGULATIONS 2020 Apply various data exchange formats for different CAD
CO 5
applications.

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Syllabus Syllabus
Module -1 Module -2
GEOMETRIC MODELING AND VISUAL
CAD AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Product design and life cycle - Role of CAD in Engineering design
REALISM
- CAD tools - Input and Output devices - CAD system architecture - Introduction to modeling and viewing - Wire frame
Mechanical applications and benefits of CAD. Graphics Displays: modeling. Representation of curves - Hermite curve - Bezier
Refresh display, DVST, Raster display, pixel value and lookup table, curve - Bspline curves. Techniques for surface modeling -
estimation of graphical memory, LCD, LED fundamentals - Co-
Surface patch - Coons and bicubic patches - Bezier and
ordinate systems - 2D and 3D transformations - Transformation of
Bspline surfaces. Solid modeling techniques - Boundary
Geometric Models - Translation, scaling, reflection, rotation,
Windowing, view port clipping, view port transformation. representation (B-rep) and Constructive Solid Geometry
(CSG). Hidden - Line, surface, solid removal algorithms,
shading and coloring - computer animation.
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Syllabus Books
Module -3 TEXT BOOKS
1. Ibrahim Zeid., “CAD/CAM - Theory and Practice”, Tata McGraw Hall Publishing
ASSEMBLY OF PARTS & CAD STANDARDS Company Pvt Ltd., 2009.
Assembly modelling – interferences of positions and orientation 2. Mikell P. Groover and Emory W. Zimmers Jr., “CAD/CAM Computer Aided
Design and Manufacturing”, Prentice Hall of India., 2007.
– tolerance analysis- mass property calculations – mechanism
REFERENCES
simulation and interference checking. Standards for computer 1. Foley, Wan Dam, Feiner and Hughes, “Computer Graphics: Principles & Practice”,
graphics - Graphical Kernel System (GKS), standards for Pearson Education, 2014.
exchange images - Open Graphics Library (OpenGL) - Exchange 2. William M. Neumann and Robert F. Sproul, “Principles of Computer Graphics”,
of CAD data between software packages - File types - IGES, McGraw Hill Book Co., 2005.
3. Radhakrishnan P and Subramaniam S ,"CAD/CAM/CIM", 3rd Edition, New Age
PDES, PARASOLID, ACIS, DXF Files. International Publications, 2008

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What is CAD ??? CAD and Its Applications

Product data
management (PDM)
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What is product design? Objectives of Product Design

 Product design is conceptualization of an
idea about a product and transformation of  To ensure growth of the organization
the idea into a reality.  To utilize the surplus capacity of the organization, such as
 To transform the idea into reality a physical facility, man power, etc.
specification about the product is prepared.
 This specification is prepared by  To utilize the surplus fund of the organization
considering different constraints such as  To meet new requirement of the customers
production process, customer expectation,
etc.  To increase company’s market share and to target new market
 In product design stage every aspects of segment
the product are analysed.  To ensure complete product range in company’s portfolio
 Also final decision regarding the product
is taken on the basis of the analysis.
 This decision can be any aspect related to
the product, e.g. dimension and tolerances,
type of material for every components, etc.
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Features of a good product design Features of a Good Product Design

Functionality: The product must function Quality: The product must satisfy customer’s stated
and unstated needs.
properly for intended purpose. Standardization: The product should be designed in
Reliability: The product must perform properly such a fashion so that most of the components are
standardized and easily available in the market.
for the designated period of time. Maintainability: The product must perform for a
Productivity: The product must be produced designated period with a minimum and defined
maintenance. Adequate provision for maintenance
with a required quantity and quality at a should be kept in the product.
defined and feasible cost.  Cost effectiveness: The product must be cost
effective. The must be manufactured in the most cost
effective environment.
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Concepts of Product Design Concepts of product design

Research & development:
CAD-CAM: By using 3D modeling software
Basic research is a search for new knowledge. It does not system, designers develop a computerized model
have any immediate application, but based on the basic
research new product can be developed in future. of a new product and analyze its design
Applied research has objective of developing commercial parameters.
products. After computer aided design (CAD), computer
Reverse engineering: aided manufacturing (CAM) system produce the
Reverse engineering is the process of carefully product by using CNC facility.
dismantling a product, understanding its design and
developing a product which is better than the existing one.

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Concepts of product design Steps of product design

Concurrent engineering (CE) Synthesis: Try to develop different alternatives
• CE is different than conventional approach of design. In
CE, different co-related teams are formed, which Sketching: Draw sketches in exact scale for different
perform different activities for developing a product. alternatives
• For example, development of market concept, design of Analysis: Analysis different alternatives with respect
product, development of manufacturing process, to operability, maintainability, inspection, assembling
selection and arrangement of material for new design is
performed by different teams at the same time. It and dismantling issues, cost parameters, production
reduces considerable amount of time to develop a new methos, etc.
product.
Selection: Select the best alternative
• In practice different concepts are combined and applied
together to design a new product. Basic engineering: Prepare layout in exact scale,
calculate strength of components, select proper cost
15 effective material. 16

Steps of Product Design Product Design and Life Cycle

 Detail design: Prepare detail engineering drawing for each Introduction
component
• A product is introduced among consumers, and if
 Prototype: If option is there, then prepare prototype and test it
 Manufacturing: If prototype is not made, then follow
consumers perceive it as meeting their needs and want, it
manufacturing steps and solve manufacturing problems and experiences a period of growth.
assembly problems, if any. • Subsequently, it reaches the stage of maturity and when
 Operation: collect feedback during actual operation of the new it loses its appeal, its decline starts and eventually is may
product. If any problem exists, try to provide design based
be taken off the market (demise).
solution. Also, implement lessons in the future design.
 Product development: If any modification can be done, • The classical product life cycle curves are depicted as
implement the same in the next generation product. “S” shaped and generally divided in four stages:
Introduction, growth, maturity, and decline.
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Product Life cycle Common Product Life Curves

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Examples Examples

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Examples Examples

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Examples Introduction Stage

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Introduction Stage Growth Stage

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Growth Stage Maturity Stage

• Most products after surviving competitive battles,
winning customer confidence and successful through
growth phase enter their maturity stage. The sales
plateau, and this flattening of sales usually lasts for
some time because most products in the category have
reached their maturity stage, and there is stability in
terms of demand, technology, and competition.
• Laptops: Laptop computers have been around for a
number of years, but more advanced components, as
well as diverse features that appeal to different
segments of the market, will help to sustain this product
as it passes through the Maturity stage.

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Maturity Stage Decline Stage

Decline stage sets in when customer preferences
change due to the availability of technologically
superior products and consumers’ shift in values,
beliefs, and tastes to products offering more
value.

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Implications and Limitations of

Decline Stage
Product Life Cycle Concept
• Product life cycle concept shows a framework
to spot the occurrence of opportunities and
threats in a product market and the industry.
• This can help firms to reassess their
objectives, strategies, and different elements of
marketing programme.

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Product Life cycle(PLC) for continuous

improvement Shigley’s Design process

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Shigley’s Design process Shigley’s Design process

3.Synthesis
Preliminary ideas are developed through research of
similar product or designs in use.

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Role of CAD in Role of CAD in

Engineering Design Engineering Design
In the Design process, the design tasks are
performed with system rather than a designer
working over a drawing board.
The various design related tasks which are
performed in the CAD system can be grouped into
major four areas.
1. Geometric modelling.
2. Engineering analysis.
3. Design review and evaluation.
4. Automated drafting.
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Role of CAD in
1.Geometric Modelling
Engineering Design
1. Geometric Modelling The geometric modeling are created in three
Geometric modelling is concerned with the methods.
computer compatible mathematical description of the
geometry of an object. 1. 2D - Two-dimensional representation is used for
The mathematical description allows the image of the a flat object.
object to be displayed and manipulated on a graphics 2. 2½D - This goes somewhat beyond the 2D
terminal. The modification on the geometry of the object
can be easily done. capability by permitting a three dimensional object
It can be stored and retrieved back. The modelling to be represented as long as it has no side wall
software should provide the basic commands for the details.
creation of the object and the commands to manipulate 3. 3D - This allows for solid modeling of a more
such as scaling, translation and rotation etc.
complex geometry.
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1.Geometric Modelling 2. Engineering Analysis

• Wire frame model: The basic form uses wire frames to • Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific analytic
principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of a
represent the object. In this form, the object is system, device or mechanism under study.
displayed by interconnected lines. These models can be • In the formulation of any engineering design project, some type of
ambiguous and unable to provide mass property analysis are required.
calculations • The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat transfer
computations, or the use of differential equations to describe the
• Surface model: These are created using points, lines dynamic behaviour of the system being designed.
and planes. This can be shaded for better visibility. • The computer can be used to aid in this analysis work.
• The analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of a CAD
• Solid model: The most advanced method of geometric system that has probably the widest application.
modeling is solid modeling in three dimensions. This • It provides properties of a solid object being analysed, such as the
method can be used to analyze the moment of inertia, surface area, weight, volume, centre of gravity and moment of
mass, volume, sections of the model. etc. inertia.

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2. Engineering Analysis 3. Design review and evaluation

• Probably the most powerful analysis feature of a CAD Review and Evaluation is checking whether the
system is the finite element method. With this
technique, the object is divided into a large number of designed part has been designed properly or not
finite elements which form an interconnecting network and if they will fail in practical situations. It is
of concentrated nodes.
• By using a computer with significant computational very important part of the whole design process.
capabilities, the entire object can be analysed for stress- With CAD software the process of design review
strain, heat transfer, and other characteristics by
calculating the behaviour of each node. and evaluation has become much faster and
• By determining the interrelating behaviour of all the convenient.
nodes in the system, the behaviour of the entire object
can be assessed.

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4.Automated drafting CAD System

• Drafting is the process of making the drawings of the
designed parts. After designing of the object its
assembly and detail parts drawings have to be made
which includes specifications of various materials also
called as bill of materials used for the manufacturing
the components of the object.
• Automated drafting involves the creation of hard copy
of engineering drawings directly from CAD database.
The important features of a drafting software are
automated dimensioning, scaling of the drawing,
capable of generating sectional views, enlargement of
parts and to generate different views of the object. Thus
CAD system can increase the productivity on drafting.
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Basic Structure of CAD system Basic Structure of CAD system

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CAD Hardware I/O devices of a CAD System

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Applications Benefits of CAD

• Increased design productivity
• Reduced time for developing conceptual design, analysis and
drafting.
• Shorter lead time.
• Easy modification of design to accommodate customer's specific
requirements.
• Improved design analysis.
• Improves design accuracy and reduces the material used.
• Calculation of mass properties can be made quickly.
• Avoid errors in design, drafting and documentation.
• The single databases used in CAD provide a common basis for
design, analysis and drafting process.
• Easier creation and correction of engineering drawings.
• Easier visualization of drawings.

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CAD System Basic Structure of CAD system

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Basic Structure of CAD system CAD Hardware

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I/O devices of a CAD System Applications

Solid Modelling
This process is used to create solid components of
desired shape by joining and cutting different solid
volumes.
The final solid model is a virtual replica of an actual
product but it can be seen and rotated like a real product.
There are two main types: ·
– direct where the model can be edited by undoing or
modifying the model directly on the 3D;
– parametric where the model is constructed using
parameters (variable quantities such as measurements)
and the model can be edited at any point in its history.

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Applications Applications
Surface Modelling Drafting Detailing
This process is used to create surfaces of desired This process is used to create the 2D drawings of
shape by trimming, stitching and joining different components or assemblies; usually directly from a 3D
surfaces to create a final shape model. model, although 2D CAD can create 2D drawings directly.
Reverse Engineering
Assembly
This process is used to convert the real component
This process is used to assemble the models into 3D CAD Model. Different types of instruments such
created in solid or surface modelling to create a as laser scanner, white light scanner, CMM (coordinate
final assembly. This is used to see the actual fitment measuring machine) etc. are used to measure or decode
of all models and see the actual working of the shape of real model. The virtual model obtained can
assembly then be modified in a CAD program.

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Applications Benefits of CAD

• Increased design productivity
• Reduced time for developing conceptual design, analysis and
drafting.
• Shorter lead time.
• Easy modification of design to accommodate customer's specific
requirements.
• Improved design analysis.
• Improves design accuracy and reduces the material used.
• Calculation of mass properties can be made quickly.
• Avoid errors in design, drafting and documentation.
• The single databases used in CAD provide a common basis for
design, analysis and drafting process.
• Easier creation and correction of engineering drawings.
• Easier visualization of drawings.

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Benefits of CAD Benefits of CAD

• Improves quality of the design: 3D CAD software comes with over • Compatible with International standards: Designing with 3D
700,000 standard templates of mechanical components. Using 3D CAD CAD ensures that the designs are compatible with international
modeling for mechanical engineering design allows designers to use the standards. CAD supports BSI, ANSI, DIN, CSN, GB, ISO, and
existing templates, thus ensuring the accuracy of the design, and also GOST drafting platforms. Being compliant with industry
saving the design time
standards improves internal communication and results in better
outputs
• Increases productivity of the designer: 3D CAD modeling helps the
• Automatic redrawing of design: Redrawing the hidden parts of
designer visualize the mechanical component in 3D at the initial stage itself components is a troublesome task for the designers using
and make any changes instantly, if needed. This enhances productivity of traditional drawing techniques. 3D CAD automatically redraws
the designer as he doesn't have to revisit the design at a later stage lines and dashes of the parts hidden from other mechanical parts
• Easy documentation: The traditional methods of drafting involve of the design. If there is any change in design, 3D CAD
manually documenting various aspects of the mechanical component, automatically redraws the lines and dashes, thereby eliminating
which is a tedious process and need high levels of accuracy. 3D CAD the chance of any error
modeling makes the entire process of documenting component designs • Reduces design time: Getting a virtual 3D CAD model in the
easy, as it comes preloaded with flexible documentation options - like design phase aids in faster development and helps the mechanical
documenting geometries and dimensions of the product, material engineers complete the design and get into the manufacturing of
specifications, bill of materials, etc. 65
the mechanical component much faster 66

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Benefits of CAD Coordinate Systems

• Better visualization for clients: 3D CAD modeling provides the
best visual images of the component to be designed in 3D. The
components can even be animated and the working can be
observed. Visual graphics helps the customer understand the
features and properties of the component better. This further
helps in demonstrating the functionality of the mechanical
component to the client, and making a proposal
• Saving of data and drawings: The designs created on CAD can
be easily saved for future reference. Some of the standard
components need not be redesigned and this saves a lot of time
for future designs creation
• Saves cost: 3D CAD comes with many standard designed
components which saves the designer from the trouble of
designing them again from scratch. This saves crucial time and
money. Also, obtaining the licensed modeling software is
expensive hence outsourcing 3D CAD modeling is the preferred
option, as it helps in saving the costs further 67 68

Model Coordinate System Model Coordinate System

• The model coordinate system is defined as the
reference space of the model with respect to
which all the model geometrical data is stored.
• It is a Cartesian system which forms the default
coordinate system used by a particular software
program. The X, Y, and Z axes of the MCS can be
displayed on the computer screen. The origin of
the MCS can be arbitrarily chosen by the user
while its orientation is established by the
software.

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Model Coordinate System Model Coordinate System

• In order for the user to communicate properly and effectively
• The three default sketch planes of a with a model database, the relationship between the MCS
CAD/CAM system define the three planes of orthogonal (sketch) planes and the model views must be
understood by the user. Typically, the software chooses one of
the MCS, and their intersection point is the
two possible orientations of the MCS in space.
MCS origin. When a CAD designer begins
sketching, the origin becomes a corner point of
the profile being sketched. The sketch plane
defines the orientation of the profile in the
model 3D space.

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Model Coordinate System Model Coordinate System

• As shown in Figure8.1a, the XY plane is the • Existing CAD/CAM software uses the MCS as
horizontal plane and defines the model top view. The the default WCS. In both orientations, the XY
front and right side views are consequently defined plane is the default construction (sketch) plane.
by the XZ and YZ planes, respectively. Figure 8.1b
shows the other possible orientation of the MCS • If the user utilizes such a plane, the first face
where the XY plane is vertical and defines the model of a model to be constructed becomes the top
front view. As a result, the XZ and the YZ planes or front view, depending on which MCS is
define the top and the right side views, respectively. used.

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Model Coordinate System Model Coordinate System

• The MCS is the only coordinate system that the • Obtaining views is a form of retrieving graphical
software recognizes when storing or retrieving information relative to the MCS. If the MCS
graphical information in or from a model orientation does not match the desired orientation
database. of the object being modeled, users become
puzzled and confused.
• Many existing software packages allow the user • Another form of retrieving information is entity
to input coordinate information in cartesian (x, y. verification. Coordinates of points defining the
z) and cylindrical (r, θ, z) coordinates. entity are given relative to MCS by default.
• This input information is transformed to (x, y. However, existing software allows users to obtain
z).coordinates relative to the MCS before being the coordinates relative to another system (WCS)
stored in the database. by using the proper commands or modifiers

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Working Coordinate System Working Coordinate System

• It is often convenient in the development of geometric
models and the input of geometric data to refer to an
auxiliary coordinate system instead of the MCS.
• This is usually useful when a desired plane (face) of
construction is not easily defined as one of the MCS
orthogonal planes, as in the case of inclined faces of a
model.
• The user can define a Cartesian coordinate system
whose XY plane is coincident with the desired plane of
construction. That system is the Working Coordinate
System, WCS. It is a convenient user-defined system
that facilitates geometric construction.

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Working Coordinate System Working Coordinate System

• It can be established at any position and orientation in • A WCS requires three noncollinear points to define its
space that the user desires. While the user can input XY plane. The first defines the origin, the first and the
data in reference to the WCS, the CAD software second define the X axis, and the third points with the
performs the necessary transformations to the MCS first define the Y axis.
before storing the data. • The Z axis is determined as the cross product of the two
• The ability to use two separate coordinate systems unit vectors in the directions defined by the lines
within the same model database in relation to one connecting the first and the second (the X axis), and the
another gives the user great flexibility. Some first and the third points (Y axis).
commercial software refers to the WCS as is • We will use the subscript w to distinguish the WCS
Unigraphics offers an example. Other software refers to axes from those of the MCS. The Xw Yw plane
it as a sketch plane (Pro/E and SolidWorks) or becomes the active sketch (working) or construction
construction plane. plane if the user defines a WCS.

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Working Coordinate System Working Coordinate System

• In this case, the WCS and its corresponding Xw,Yw plane override
the MCS and the default sketch plane, respectively. As a matter of
fact, the MCS with its default sketch plane is the default WCS with
its Xw,Yw plane. All CAD/CAM software packages provide users
with three standard WCSs {sketch planes) that correspond to the
three standard views: Front, Top, and Right sides. The user can
define other WCSs or sketch planes.
• There is only one active WCS (sketch plane) at any one time. If the
user defines multiple WCSs in one session during a model
construction, the software recognizes only the last one and stores it
with the model database if the user stores the model. The model tree
displayed by the CAD software shows the last selected (activated)
sketch plane.

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Working Coordinate System Screen Coordinate System

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Screen Coordinate System Screen Coordinate System

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Transformation Types of transformation

Transformations are a fundamental part of the There are two types of transformation in computer
graphics.
computer graphics. Transformations are the
1) 2D transformation
movement of the object in Cartesian plane . 2) 3D transformation
Types of 2D and 3D transformation
1) Translation
2) Rotation
3) Scaling
4) Shearing
5) Mirror reflection
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Why we use transformation 2D Transformation

Transformation are used to position objects , to
shape object , to change viewing positions , and
even how something is viewed.
In simple words transformation is used for
1) Modeling
2) viewing

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2D Transformation 2D Transformation

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Transformation Types of transformations

• Geometric transformations have numerous applications in Types of transformations:
geometric modeling, e.g., manipulation of size, shape, and
location of an object. o Modeling Transformation
• In CAD, transformation is also used to generate surfaces and o Visual Transformation
solids by sweeping curves and surfaces, respectively.
• The term ‘sweeping’ refers to parametric transformations,
which are utilized to generate surfaces and solids.
• When we sweep a curve, it is transformed through several
positions along or around an axis, generating a surface.
• The appearance of the generated surface depends on the
number of instances of the transformation.

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Modeling Transformation Visual Transformation

• This transformation alters the coordinate values • In this transformation there is no change in
of the object. either the geometry or the coordinates of the
• Basic operations are scaling, translation, rotation object.
and, combination of one or more of these basic
transformations. • A copy of the object is placed at the desired
• Examples of these transformations can be easily sight, without changing the coordinate values
found in any commercial CAD software. of the object.
• For instance, AutoCAD uses SCALE, MOVE, and • In AutoCAD, the ZOOM and PAN commands
ROTATE commands for scaling, translation, and are good examples of visual transformation.
rotation transformations, respectively.
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Two-Dimensional (2D)
2D translation
Geometric Transformation
A geometric transformation is an operation that modifies • Translation is nothing but moving an object
its shape, size, position, orientation etc. with respect to across the screen from one position to another.
its current configuration operating on the vertices
(position vectors). • The translation transformation positions the
Some of the important 2D transformations include:
object to a new location.
 Translation is the process of moving an object from
1. Translation one position to another.
2. Scaling  The translation transformation positions the object
3. Rotation to a new location.
4. Reflection  The translation is accomplished by adding the
5. Shear coordinates of each corner point the distance
through which the object is to moved.
6. Twist

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Translation of a point Translation of an object

When the object is to moved, all the points of it are to be translated.
The translation of keypoints and connections of these points by other
geometric entities like lines, arcs, etc.

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Translation of an object Translation of an object

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2D Rotation 2D Rotation
 Rotation refers to the movement an object in such a way that the distance
between a certain fixed point and any given point of that body remains
constant.
 Rotation transformation techniques is commonly used in rendering and
animation tehniques.

 Consider the rotation of a point from initial position a P(x,y) to a new

position P’(x’,y’) by an angle θ about the origin
 Here counterclockwise rotation is consider as positive and clockwise
rotation as negative. 103 104

2D Scaling 2D Scaling
 Scaling is the transformation used to change, increase or decrease,
the size of an object.
 Scaling can be achieved by multiplying the original coordinates of
an object by the scaling factor Sx along x-direction and Sy along y-
direction.
 Scaling factor is always positive, if scaling factor is less than 1, the
object is compressed; if more than 1, the object is stretched.
 If scale factors are equal i.e., Sx=Sy=S, the object changes in size
only and not in shape. This scaling is known as uniform scaling.
 If scale factors are different i.e., Sx≠Sy, the object changes in size
only and not in shape. This scaling is known as non-uniform scaling.

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2D Scaling 2D Scaling

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2D reflection 2D reflection
• Reflection is a transformation in which the
direction of one axis is reversed.
• Reflection transformation produces a mirror
image of an object.
• The reflection transformation is useful in the
construction of symmetric objects. If the object is
symmetric with respect to plane, only half of the
geometry is created and then the half model is
copied by reflection to develop the full model.
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2D reflection

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Homogeneous Coordinates
• Each of the 2D transformations with the
exception of translation can be represented as a
row vector X, Y and a 2 X 2 matrix.
Homogeneous Coordinates • However, all the four transformations discussed
above can be represented as a product of a 1 X 3
row vector and an appropriate 3 X 3 matrix.
• The conversion of a two-dimensional co-ordinate
pair (X, Y) into a 3-dimensional vector can be
achieved by representing the point as [X Y 1].
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Homogeneous Coordinates Homogeneous Coordinates

• After multiplying this vector by a 3 X 3 matrix,
another homogeneous row vector is obtained
[X1 Y1 1]. The first two terms in this vector are
the co-ordinate pair which is the transform of
(X, Y).
• This three dimensional representation of a two
dimensional plane is called homogeneous co-
ordinates and the transformation using the
homogeneous co-ordinates is called
homogeneous transformation.

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3D Transformation 3D transformation
• A three-dimensional object has a three-dimensional
geometry, and therefore, it requires a three-
dimensional coordinate transformation.
• A right handed coordinate system is used to carry out a
3-D transformation.
• The scaling and translation transformations are
essentially the same as two dimensional
transformations.
• However, the points matrix will have a non-zero 3rd
column. Additionally, the transformation matrices
contain some non-zero values in the third row and
third column.

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3D Transformation 3D Coordinate systems

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3D Transformation

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3D Translation 3D Translation

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3D Rotation

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Z axis Rotation Coordinate axis rotation

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X axis Rotation Y axis Rotation

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Roll,Pitch,Yaw

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135 136

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3D scalling

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3D scalling 3D Reflection

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3D Reflection 3D Reflection

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3D Reflection 3D Reflection

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3D Shearing 3D Shearing

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Window to
3D Shearing
viewport transformation
• Window port
• Viewport
• Window to Viewport mapping is required
• Some transformations are required
• Transformation can Translation, rotation,
scaling and shearing

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Window to Window to
viewport transformation viewport transformation

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Window to Concept of window to viewport

viewport transformation transformation

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Steps for window to viewport

Window to Viewport Mapping
transformation

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Steps for window to viewport Steps for window to viewport

transformation transformation

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Steps for window to viewport Steps for window to viewport

transformation transformation

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Steps for window to viewport

Example
transformation

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Composition of transformations

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Formula to find out scaling factor

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