LOYOLA JESUIT

COLLEGE
PHYSICS NOTE SS3
TERM 1

FRANK NWOKOCHA

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GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS:This is the region under the influence of
gravitational force.e.g the gravitational field of the earth are places where
masses have gravitational forces and energy.
 NEWTON'S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH
 CIRCULAR ORBITS
 ESCAPE VELOCITY
 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL AT A POINT

NEWTON'S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

 The force of attraction between two masses m1 and m2 in the universe is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of their separation.

No subscript is needed on the Fs, since the force is the same on both masses in
magnitude, but opposite in direction (recall Newton’s third law). According to Newton's
law of gravitation:

G is called the ‘universal gravitational constant’. By experiment, G =

6.67 * 1011 N m2 kg2
For objects of a finite size, r is the distance between their centres of
mass. In particular, if the objects are spheres of uniform density, they
can be treated as point objects with all their mass concentrated at
their centres, so r is the distance between their centres:

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G and g
Consider a mass m on the Earth’s surface:

The force on mass m equals its weight, mg. But this is due to gravity, so:

Example
The radius of the Earth is 6.37 * 106m. What is its mass?
(G = 6.67*1011 Nm2kg ; g = 10ms2)

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD STRENGTH

 The gravitational field strength at a point is the force per unit mass at that point

i.e. if a mass m (kg) experiences a gravitational force F (Newton’s) then:

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Thus, gravitational field strength and acceleration due to gravity are
equivalent quantities.
Near the Earth’s surface:

So, as far calculations are concerned, numerically g = 10, whichever

units it is actually given in. The field strength decreases above the
earth surface. This is based on inverse square law,
At a distance 2R, away from the centre of the earth, g =10/4, g =
2.5N/Kg. This is because g ∞ 1/r2
A satellite of mass 2000kg orbits round the earth at a distance twice
the earths radius. Since g at this height is 2.5N/Kg, the weight of the
satellite is 4500N F =mg. which is 2000 X 2.5 =4500N
Assignment: Calculate the weight of the satellite at distance 3R and 4R

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL AT A POINT

Definition
 The gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field is numerically equal
to the work done in moving a unit mass to that point from infinity, where the
potential is defined as zero

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Potential is a scalar quantity.
From earlier, the work done in moving a mass m from the Earth’s
surface to infinity is given by:
Work done = gravitational force x distance moved by the mass towards
the centre of the earth.
W = GMm/r2 x r

To be general, at a distance r from the centre of mass of a mass M, the

gravitational potential is given by:

Gravitational potential VG and field strength g

The following indicates the force F on a mass m, the gravitational field
strength g and the potential VG at r in the gravitational field due to
mass M:

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ESCAPE VELOCITY
The escape velocity is the minimum velocity required for a
projected body such as a rocket to escape from the earth’s
gravitational pull.

The total work done W in moving the mass m from r1 to r2 equals the area between the
graph and the section of the axis from r1 to r2, and can be shown to be given by:

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If the mass m is to be projected from the Earth’s surface and is to
escape to infinity then:
Change in gravitational potential energy =work done= o – (-GMm/r)

To escape to infinity from the Earth’s surface, the body must be

projected with this amount of initial energy as kinetic energy.

Since g = GM/r2 v = 2 gr
Notice that the mass of the object does not appear in the equation.

Example
Determine the escape velocity from the Earth given that:

Note: The above equation only applies to projectiles. A body in

powered flight does not have to rely upon its initial KE to escape from
the Earth, so does not need to reach the escape velocity (given a long
enough ladder you could walk to the moon!)

Reasons why g varies on the earth surface

1. The earth is not a (perfect ) sphere
2. Altitude/depth of a place
3. Rotation of the earth on its axis

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Since the polar radius is smaller as compared to the equatorial radius, the value of g will
be greater at the poles t,e using g = GM/R2

The statement the acceleration of free fall due to gravity on the equator is 9.78m/s2 means
that at the equator 9.78N is the force of gravity acting on a unit mass 1kg moving towards
the centre of the earth.

Rockets
A rocket is a vehicle that obtains its thrust by ejecting hot gases at great speed from its
rear. The rocket engine works based on Newton’s third law of motion. To every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. Rocket engine exhaust is formed entirely from
propellants carried within the rocket before use. Rocket engines push rocket forward by
expelling their exhaust in the opposite direction at high speed.

The law of gravity governs the launching of rockets. Satellites are kept in space by
the gravitational attraction of the earth.

The action of the rocket engine's combustion chambers and expansion nozzles on a
high pressure fluid is able to accelerate the fluid to extremely high speed, and
conversely this exerts a large reactive thrust on the rocket (an equal and opposite
reaction according to Newton's third law), which propels the rocket forwards.

Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting on the combustion chamber and nozzle
In a closed chamber, the pressures are equal in each direction and no acceleration
occurs. If an opening is provided in the bottom of the chamber then the pressure is
no longer acting on the missing section. This opening permits the exhaust to escape.
The remaining pressures give a resultant thrust on the side opposite the opening,
and these pressures are what push the rocket along.
Using a nozzle gives more force as well since the exhaust also presses on it as it
expands outwards, roughly doubling the total force. If propellant gas is continuously

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added to the chamber then these pressures can be maintained for as long as
propellant remains. Note that the pumps moving the propellant into the combustion
chamber must maintain a pressure larger than the combustion chamber ---typically
on the order of 100 atmospheres.
As a side effect, these pressures on the rocket also act on the exhaust in the opposite
direction and accelerate this to very high speeds (according to Newton's Third
Law).From the principle of conservation of momentum the speed of the exhaust of a
rocket determines how much momentum increase is created for a given amount of
propellant. This is called the rocket's impulse. Because a rocket, propellant and
exhaust in flight, without any external perturbations, may be considered as a closed
system, the total momentum is always constant. Therefore, the faster the net speed
of the exhaust in one direction, the greater the speed of the rocket can achieve in the
opposite direction. This is especially true since the rocket body's mass is typically far
lower than the final total exhaust mass.
As the remaining propellant decreases, rocket vehicles become lighter and their
acceleration tends to increase until the propellant is exhausted. This means that
much of the speed change occurs towards the end of the burn when the vehicle is
much lighter.
Forces on a rocket in flight

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Forces on a rocket in flight, rockets that must travel through the air are usually tall
and thin as this shape gives a high ballistic coefficient and minimizes drag losses
The general study of the forces on a rocket is part of ballistics.
. Thrust from the engine(s)
 Gravity from celestial bodies
 Drag if moving in atmosphere
 Lift; usually relatively small effect except for rocket-powered aircraft

Impulse
The total impulse of a rocket burning its propellant is simply:

When there is fixed thrust, this is simply:

Components of a rocket
1. The rocket engine: This contains the combustive propellants, a chemical reaction
is initiated between the fuel and the oxidizer in the combustion chamber, and the
resultant hot gases accelerate out of a rocket engine nozzle (or nozzles) at the
rearward-facing end of the rocket. The acceleration of these gases through the
engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling
the vehicle (according to Newton's Third Law). This actually happens because the
force (pressure times area) on the combustion chamber wall is unbalanced by the
nozzle opening; this is not the case in any other direction. The shape of the nozzle
also generates force by directing the exhaust gas along the axis of the rocket.
2. Fins: Fins are attached to some rockets at the bottom of the frame to provide
stability during the flight i.e enables the rocket to travel straight during flight
3. The recovery device: This enables the rocket to slowly return to the ground after it
has reached its highest altitude
4. The launch system: This consists of a launch pad and an engine ignition system
with a battery.

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 5. The nose cone: This forms the top of a model rocket. The rounded tip reduces air
resistance. The astronaut and payload stays there during space travel. Payload
depends on the rocket's mission. The earliest payloads on rockets were fireworks
for celebrating holidays. Following World War II, many countries developed
guided ballistic missiles armed with nuclear warheads for payloads. The same
rockets were modified to launch satellites with a wide range of missions;
communications, weather monitoring, spying, planetary exploration, and
observatories, like the Hubble Space Telescope. Special rockets were developed
to launch people into earth orbit and onto the surface of the Moon.

6. The engine holder: This is a ring cemented inside the bottom of the tube of the
rocket. The rocket engine fits into the engine holder
7. The body tube: This is a hallow cylinder to which all the other parts are attached.
8. The launch lug: This is a narrow tube fastened to the side of the body tube. This
guides the rocket vertically during lift off.

A rocket is launched in multi-stages

1. 1st stage
2. 2nd stage
3. 3rd stage
The nose cone which is located at the tip contains the astronaut and payload.

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The structural system, or frame, is similar to the fuselage of an airplane. The frame is
made from very strong but light weight materials, like titanium or aluminum

The guidance system of a rocket may include very sophisticated sensors, on-board
computers, radars, and communication equipment to maneuver the rocket in flight

Uses
1. Launch satellites into space
2. Shooting fireworks
3. Military use: launching missiles in warfare e.g ICBM
4. In space exploration e.g hubble telescope, voyager 1, which are launched in space
5. Rescue: Solid rocket propelled ejection seats are used in many military aircraft to
propel crew away to safety from a vehicle when flight control is lost

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 6. Scientific Research
7. Distress signals

SATELLITES
A satellite is any object that is orbiting a planet. Satellites can be categorized as
natural satellites and artificial satellites. The moon and comets are examples of
natural satellites. Accompanying the orbit of natural satellites are a host of satellites
launched from earth for purposes of communication, scientific research, weather
forecasting, intelligence, etc.
The fundamental principle to be understood concerning satellites is that a satellite is
a projectile. That is to say, a satellite is an object upon which the only force is gravity.
Once launched into orbit, the only force governing the motion of a satellite is the
force of gravity.
The velocity of the satellite would be directed tangent to the circle at every point
along its path. The acceleration of the satellite would be directed towards the center
of the circle - towards the central body that it is orbiting. And this acceleration is
caused by a net force that is directed inwards in the same direction as the
acceleration.

This centripetal force is supplied by gravity - the force that universally acts at a
distance between any two objects that have mass. Were it not for this force, the

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satellite in motion would continue in motion at the same speed and in the same
direction

Detailed information about our solar system is obtained through the launching of
satellites with rockets in space. On October 4, 1957, The former Soviet Union
successfully launched the first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 into space. The satellite
weighed about 83.6kg and orbited the earth in about 98 minutes. On April 12, 1961 Major
Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet, became the first man to orbit in space in a period of 108
minutes. .The American Neil Armstrong became the first man to step foot on the moon
on July 20, 1969 in the Apollo 11 mission.

Nigeria has launched five satellites in space. Nigeria sat 1(A disaster monitoring micro
satellite, was launched on 27th September 2003. NigComSat -1 a communication satellite
was launched on 13th May 2007. Nigeria sat 2 and Nigeria sat X are both high resolution
satellites for resource management and mapping of Nigeria territory were launched in
2011, Due to the demise of NigComSat-1 in 2008, when it failed in orbit after losing
power due to an anomaly in its solar array, NigComSat-1R, a communication satellite
was launched in 2011 as a replacement to NigComSat-1

Assignment.
State the uses of Nigeria Sat –1 and NigComSat -1 Satellites

TYPES OF SATELLITES
1.Satellites in Polar Orbits

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A polar orbit is so called because a satellite in polar orbit passes over the North and South
Poles. As it orbits the Earth, the Earth spins on it's axis, once every 24 hours. This means
that the satellite passes over a different part of the Earth with each orbit, eventually
passing over every point of the Earth. They also orbit rapidly – one orbit every few hours
– and because there are a lot of polar satellites in orbit, if a certain part of the Earth needs
to be monitored, there will very soon be a satellite in a position to do so. A polar orbit
allows a satellite to be closer to the earth’s surface. As the satellite orbits the earth rotates
below it. The result is that the satellite covers the earth in a long continuous strip. Spy
satellites and remote sensing satellites orbit in this way. Suppose that a satellite is less
than, say, 200km above the Earth, then, R is about equal to r (as 6600km is only a few
percent bigger than the radius of the Earth, which is 6400km.Satellites in polar orbits
orbit quite close to the Earth – only a few hundred miles or so. This and the other features
described above makes them very useful for certain tasks.
1. Because of their proximity to the Earth, they can take very clear pictures. This
makes them useful for spying and these satellites are used a lot by the world's
biggest military powers.
2. They can take pictures of weather systems in detail and are widely used for
weather forecasting.
3. They are used for communications – satellite phones etc.
4. The Global Positioning System – GPS – is run using satellites in polar orbits.

Example

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Given g = 9.8ms2 and the radius of Earth, r = 6.4*10 6 m, find the velocity and period for
an object in an orbit close to the Earth.

2. Satellites in Geostationary Orbits or parking orbit

Satellites in geostationary orbits orbit the Earth once every 24 hours in the plane of the
Earth's equator. Because the Earth also spins on it's axis once every 24 hours, the satellite
appears above the same spot on the equator all the time – hence the name geostationary.
Three geostationary satellites are sufficient to cover most of the Earth's surface. This
makes the satellite useful for several purposes.
1. Satellite TV. Satellite TV is usually per country. A satellite stationary above one
country may be used for satellite TV in that country alone.
2. There are mobile phone networks that transmit calls via geostationary satellites.
There are several disadvantages however. The satellites cannot 'see' the North or South
poles, so are of no use in providing services there, and the distance of a geostationary
satellite from the Earth is much greater than for polar satellites, so more power is required
to obtain an adequate signal, and these satellites are more expensive to launch and repair

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because of their greater distance from the Earth. Suppose that the period of a satellite is
exactly 24 hours, and that it is rotating above the equator and with the Earth, then the
satellite will stay over the same place over the Earth’s surface. The satellite is said to be
in a ‘parking orbit’ or a 'geostationary orbit' or a 'geosynchronous orbit'. Such satellites
are used for communication and for observing the Earth.
Example
For a satellite in a parking orbit, calculate:
a. the radius of orbit
b. the height above the Earth
c. the speed in this orbit
(radius of the Earth = 6.4*106, mass of the Earth = 6.0*1024 kg, G = 6.7*10-11N m2 kg2)
a) T = 24 hours = 24 * 60 * 60 seconds = 8.64 * 104s

b) height above the Earth = 42400  6400 = 36000 km

Uses of Artificial satellites

1. Communication, internet, satellite TV: helps to enhance the growth of the
industrial, commercial and administrative sectors of the economy through ICT
2. Astronomical space probe ::research into space e.g the hubbles telescope

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 3. Military: for defence strategies, intelligence security
4. Navigation in ships, cars, Global positioning satellites (GPS)
5. Missile guidance: missiles can be guided from space to a precision target on
earth e.g The Star war program
6. Weather forecasting: helps us to study atmospheric and weather conditions.
7. Remote sensing : helps us to manage our environment and natural resources
through space exploration using space acquired information

Difficulties encountered in space by Astronauts

1. Weightlessness
2. Motion sickness
3. Difficulty in breathing
4. Nausea
5. Headache
6. Loss of calcium resulting to dizziness
7. Weight loss
8. Itchy eyes

Components of satellite
1. Power generation and distribution system-The use of solar cells and rechargeable
batteries
2. Command and data handling system-Receives signals from ground control on the
Earth and carries out the instruction in space
3. Payload-This depends on the function of the satellite e.g a meteorological satellite
will have a good imaging system while a communication satellite will have a
good transponder and broadband system
4. Protective shielding- This protects the satellite from the intense radiation from the
sun as well as extreme cold.
5. Rocket thruster system-This enables the satellite to remain in proper orbit when
affected by celestial bodies.

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ENERGY OF SATELLITES
mv 2 GMm
Force towards the centre = =
r r2

GMm
mv2 =
r

1 GMm
KE = mv2 =
2 2r
r = radius of the orbit

Assuming the zero of PE in the earths field is at infinity

GMm
GPE of mass in orbit = -
r
The PE of the mass in orbit is numerically twice its KE and of opposite sign
At an orbit of smaller radius the KE and speed of satellites increases while the PE
decreases

GMm GMm
Total energy in orbit = - +
r 2r

GMm
Total energy = -
2r
Owing to friction in the earths atmosphere, the satellite energy diminishes and the radius
of the orbit decreases.

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Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of static or stationary electric charges. Charging by
friction is a simple way to acquire static electric charges. . A rod of plastic
rubbed with fur or a rod of glass rubbed with silk will attract small
pieces of paper and is said to be electrically charged. The charge on
plastic rubbed with fur is defined as negative, and the charge on glass
rubbed with silk is defined as positive.
 There are two kinds of charge, positive and negative
 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
 Positive charge comes from having more protons than electrons; negative charge
comes from having more electrons than protons
 Charge is quantized, meaning that charge comes in integer multiples of the
elementary charge e

The SI unit for charge is the coulomb, C

The charge of a proton is 1.6 x 10-19 C

The charge of an electron is -1.6 x 10-19 C

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All charges obey the law of electrostatics which states that
- like charges repel while unlike charges attract

The magnitude of the electrical force of attraction or repulsion between charges

is increased if
- the quantity of charge is increased
- the distance between the charges is decreased

Explanation for electrostatics

Matter is made up of atoms. In every atom, there are positively charged protons
and negatively charged electrons. The electrons orbit around the nucleus which
contains the protons (as well as the uncharged neutrons)

When an atom is in the uncharged state, the number of protons and the number
of electrons are equal. An atom can only become charged by adding or removing
the negatively charged electrons.

Therefore an object becomes negatively charged when it gains electrons and

positively charged when it loses electrons.
Electric field

Methods of producing electrostatic charges

1. Charging by friction:
Rub two different materials together and then separate them quickly. One
of the materials will be positively charged and the other will be negatively
charged

2. Charging by electrostatic induction

a. charging a conductor by induction

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EXPLANATION ON METHODS OF PRODUCING CHARGES
1. Charging by friction - this is useful for charging insulators. If you rub one
material with another (say, a plastic ruler with a piece of paper towel), electrons
have a tendency to be transferred from one material to the other. For example,
rubbing glass with silk or saran wrap generally leaves the glass with a positive
charge; rubbing PVC rod with fur generally gives the rod a negative charge.
2. Charging by contact - useful for charging metals and other conductors. If a
charged object touches a conductor, some charge will be transferred between the
object and the conductor, charging the conductor with the same sign as the charge
on the object.
3. Charging by induction - also useful for charging metals and other conductors.
Again, a charged object is used, but this time it is only brought close to the
conductor, and does not touch it. If the conductor is connected to ground (ground
is basically anything neutral that can give up electrons to, or take electrons from,

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 an object), electrons will either flow on to it or away from it. When the ground
connection is removed , the conductor will have a charge opposite in sign to that
of the charged object.

The Gold Leaf Electroscope

The gold leaf electroscope consists of a brass rod topped by a metal

cap. A leaf of thin gold or aluminium is attached to the lower end of the
rod. The rod passes through a plug of good insulating material such as
alkathene, with the lower end of thee rod inside an earthed metal case
with glass windows.

Uses

1.To detect the presence of charge on a body: if a charged body is

brought close to the cap, charges of opposite polarity will be induced
on the disc by being brought up from the lower end of the rod and leaf.
The rod and leaf will then be charged with the same polarity charge,
the same polarity as the original charged body. Rod and leaf will repel
each other, and the leaf will deflect. If the body is removed the leaf will
collapse, showing that the induced charge is temporary. Very small
charges may be detected by this method.

2.To test the sign of charge on a body: a gold leaf electroscope may be
negatively charged by rubbing an ebonite rod with fur and rolling the
rod over the cap of the electroscope. Suppose now that a charged body
is brought close to the cap. If this body is negatively charged, electrons
will be repelled from the negatively charged cap down to the bottom of
the rod and leaf, and the leaf will deflect further. If the body is

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positively charged then electrons will be attracted to it. Electrons will
be drawn up from the rod and leaf so that there is less electrostatic
repulsion and the deflection of the leaf will decrease.

3.To test the insulating properties of materials: the electroscope is

charged with an ebonite rod as above. A material in someone's hand is
brought into contact with the cap. If the material is a good conductor
charge will flow from the cap through the material and the leaf will
droop. If the material is an insulator, the deflection of the leaf will not
change.

4. To determine the magnitude of charge

Electrostatic induction

Electrostatic induction is a process whereby a conductor becomes charged when

a charged body is brought near it but is not in direct contact with it.
Explanation
A positively charged rod, when placed near an uncharged aluminium foil, attracts
the free electrons inside the foil. This results in the near side of the foil becoming
negatively charged, and the other side positively charged.
In other words, the positive and negative charges in the foil are separated by the
positively charged rod. These separated charges are known as induced charges.

Once the rearrangement of the charges is done, following the law of charges, the
rod attracts the near side of the foil but repels the far side. However, since the
strength of an electrostatic force decreases with distance, there will be an overall
attractive force between the rod and the foil.

Any object that allows electric charges by induction method is known as a

conductor.

The separated charges due to electrostatic induction are known as induced

charges. The presence of different types of induced charges explains why the
pieces of paper are attracted to a charged comb brought near to them.

c. charging an electroscope by induction

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Conductors, insulators, semi-conductors and superconductors
conductors insulators
Allow electric charges to flow through them Do not allow electric charges to
easily (low resistance) flow through them easily (high
resistance)
eg: metals, acids, bases, salt solutions, eg: non-metals, acids, bases and
graphite, ionized gases salts in solid states, diamond and
non-ionized gases
solid conductors have free-moving electrons as insulators do not have free-
charge carriers. liquid and gaseous conductors moving electrons or ions
have ions as charge carriers functioning as charge carriers

Semiconductors

e.g. germanium and silicon

To increase their conductivity, impurities are added to them.

Applications

- For making microchips and transistors used in computers and other electronic
appliances like radios

Superconductors
They have near zero resistance at very low temperatures around 0 K. Materials
which have superconductivity properties include mercury, tin, lead and some
ceramic materials

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Van de Graaf generator

Friction between the moving rubber belt and the metal roller produces positive
charges on the belt.
The positive charges are then carried up to the dome where they attract negative
charges to the inside of the dome and repel positive charges to the outside of the
dome. This discharges the belt, but leaves an excess of positive charges on the
dome. As the amount of positive charges accumulate on the dome, its voltage
increases.

ELECTROPHOROUS
This is an induction machine, which produces electrostatic charges.


If you turn a television on and touch the screen, the screen feels as
though it has a film of some sort over it. The TV screen is charged. It
has an excess of electron. Many materials accumulate charge in this
way. If for example you rub a balloon on your clothes, you may cause
electrons to pass from one to the other. If you then hold the balloon
close to running tap water, you may cause it to deflect in the way
shown below.

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Static electricity occurs in nature. Static electricity may build up
between the ground and rainclouds. This happens usually when low air
pressure causes high winds, causing the same effect as in the example
above between your clothes and the balloon. The result is lightning.

Static electricity can be dangerous and sometimes precautions must

be taken against it. This is especially so at airports when planes are
being refuelled. Static electricity may build up between the tanker and
the plane for example as the fuel is pumped. With the air full of fuel
vapour, any tiny spark could cause an explosion. Hence tanker and
plane are earthed, which disallows any build up of static electricity.
Closer to home, you may build up static electricity on yourself while
driving, if you move about in your seat. When you get out, at a petrol
station, the charge you have built up causes a spark.

Distribution of charge over the Surface of a Conductor

Charge is distributed uniformly over the surface of a uniform

conductor. If the surface is flat or spherical the charge is uniformly
distributed. Most surfaces do not have this kind of symmetry. It is more
general to say that charge distributes itself so that the potential is
uniform. This means that charge tends to concentrate in areas of

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maximum curvature, or corners. The surface charge density is greatest
at sharp points

This means that the electric field is more intense in areas of maximum curvature and
reside externally

This then implies that the electric field is greatest at those points on
the surface where the charge distribution is greatest. Charges also
resides externally not internally in a conductor

If the electric field breaks down and discharge occurs, it will be at

those points of maximum electric field ie greatest curvature.

Thunder and Lightning

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Lightning is due to the generation of large voltages between clouds
and the Earth during thunderstorms. Then charges are generated by
friction as wind blows over the clouds and the ground. If the voltages
get large enough, lightning may result. The air breaks down into ions
allowing large currents to pass between the air and ground. Anything
that stands above the ground – a person, tree, a building – may provide
a path for the lightning to pass. Trees may be split into two down the
middle, as in the novel, Jane Eyre. If the lightning strikes a person, they
may well die, and if it strikes a building, structural damage may occur
and electrical circuits may blow.

Buildings may be protected by means of a lightning conductor. This

provides a route of low resistance that allows the large currents to pass
to Earth causing little or no damage. A thick copper strip is fixed to the
outside of a building, reaching above the highest point of the building,
ending in several sharp spikes. The other end consists of a plate buried
in the ground.

When a negatively charged thundercloud passes overhead it acts

inductively on the conductor, charging the points positively and the
earthed plate negatively. The negative charge on the plate is
dissipated into the earth. At the same time the points – which are
surrounded by large electric fields, being pointed – attract negative
ions from the clouds and give up their electrons which pass down to
earth. At the same time positive ions are repelled upwards from the
spikes and spread out to form a 'space charge'. Any discharge which
occurs will pass down the lightning conductor and pass harmlessly to
earth.

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If, as is extremely likely, you have ever witnessed a thunderstorm, you
will have noticed the time between seeing the lightning and hearing
the thunderclap. The lightning and thunderclap happen at the same
time, so why the difference?

The difference is due to the method by which they reach us. Light
travels very fast – 300000000 m/s, but the speed of sound is much less

– 330m/s, or only the speed. The light will reach us almost

instantaneously, but if for example, the thunderstorm is 2km away, the

thunderclap will take about

This can work the other way around. If you can count the seconds
between the lightning flash and the thunderclap, then you can
estimate roughly how far away the thunderstorm is by assuming that
for every one second the thunderclap has travelled 330 m, so you can
work out the distance using distance=speed * time=330t

The Law of Conservation of Charge

The Law of conservation of charge states that the net charge of an

isolated system remains constant.
Table of elementary particle masses and charges:

30
Why is static electricity more apparent in Harmattan

You notice static electricity much more in harmattan (with clothes in a

dryer, or taking a sweater off, or getting a shock when you touch
something after walking on carpet) than in wet season because the air
is much drier in the harmattan than in wet season. Dry air is a
relatively good electrical insulator, so if something is charged the
charge tends to stay. In more humid conditions, such as you find on a
typical wet day, water molecules, which are polarized, can quickly
remove charge from a charged object.

ELECTRIC FIELDS :

ATOMS AND ELECTRONS

In the following set-up, two strips of polythene have been rubbed with
wool, and when bought close together, they repel each other:

31
The polythene has become 'electrostatically charged' by friction with the wool.
If a strip of Perspex is rubbed with wool, and then bought close to the
suspended polythene strip, they attract each other.
This indicates that there are two types of charge, and we call these
positive and negative. The polythene strips are taken as having a
negative charge, and the Perspex a positive charge.

ELECTRIC FIELD: This is the region of space where electric charges have forces on
them and potential energies. It exists all around electric charges.

COULOMB'S LAW (1785)

 The force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of their separation

The above represents the situation when the forces are attractive. No subscripts are
needed on the Fs, since the force on each charge is the same in magnitude, but they are
opposite in direction recall Newton’s third law). According to Coulomb's law:

F =Electric force
Note: For two charged spheres, r is the distance between their centres.
Permittivity
Notice how similar the above is to the gravitational case. However, one
difference is that in the gravitational case, the force between two
masses is always attractive, whereas in the electric case the force can
be attractive or repulsive, depending on the signs of the charges.
Also, in the gravitational case, the constant of proportionality is the
universal gravitational constant G, and its value does not depend upon
the nature of the medium between two masses. However, in the
electric case the force between two charges does depends upon what
is between them.
To take the medium into account we write Coulomb’s law as:

32
A more commonly used, and equivalent unit, is ‘farads per metre’ (F
m1)

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

There is no doubt that the forces between charges are real, since we
can observe the effect of such forces, as in the simple experiment with
charged strips above. However, there is no apparent physical contact
between the strips, and we cannot see what produces the forces. To
‘explain’ such ‘action at a distance’, we assume that an electric charge
is surrounded by an invisible 'electric field', and that it is the
interaction between fields that produces the observed effects.
An electric field is any region where an electric force may be
experienced. We represent such fields by lines with arrows on them.

33
The direction of the field at a point, represented by an arrow, is defined
as the direction of the force on a positive charge at that point. Thus,
arrows point away from a positive charge and towards a negative
charge.

Electric line of force is the path, which a small positive charge would
follow if placed in the field and free to move in a line whose tangent is
in the direction of the force on a positive charge.

Properties of lines of force

1. No line of force originate or terminate in the space surrounding a
charge
2. Lines of force never intersect
3. In a uniform field, the lines of force are straight, parallel and
uniformly spaced.
4. Lines of force are usually curves as the direction of the field
varies from point to point
5. Every line of force in an electrostatic field is a continuous line
terminated by a positive charge at one end and a negative
charge at the other end.

An electric field is a region where electrical forces of attraction or

repulsion act on any charged object placed in it

The pattern of the electric field is illustrated by drawing electric lines of force.
The direction of the electric field is defined as the direction of the electric lines
of force.

6.

34
ELECTRIC FIELD STRENGTH (OR INTENSITY)
Definition
 The electric field strength at a point equals the force per unit positive charge at
that point

Thus, if a small positive point charge q is placed at a point in an electric field, and it
experiences a force F, then the electric field strength E at that point is defined by:

E is a vector with the same direction as F (the force on the positive charge, q).
From the definition, the unit of E = unit of (F/q) = N C1.
A more commonly used, but equivalent, unit of E is volts per metre (V m1).
E due to a point charge
Consider a small positive test charge q placed at P, a distance r from a
point charge +Q:

By Coulomb’s law, the force F on q is:

In the diagram, the point charge is represented as being positive, but

the above equation gives E for both a positive or negative point charge
Q.
E due to a charged spherical conductor
So far as external effects are concerned, we can treat a spherical
conductor, having charge Q distributed uniformly over its surface, as if
all the charge were at its centre.
Thus, if its radius is a, the field strength E at a distance r from its
centre (r  a):

Definition:

35
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT
Definition
 The electric potential at a point in an electric field is numerically equal to the
work done in moving a unit positive charge to that point from infinity, where the
potential is defined as zero

Potential is a scalar quantity, and the potential at a point due to a number of charges is the
algebraic sum of the potentials at that point due to each charge.
Potential due to an isolated point charge

We can show that the electric potential VE, a distance r from charge Q is given by:

And also that:

(Hence, the unit V/m for electric field strength, E.)

36
Potential due to a charged conducting sphere

It can be shown that:

i) The potential V at a distance r from the centre is given by:

Where, r  a, i.e. on the surface and outside the sphere.

37
ii) Inside the sphere the potential is the same at all points and the
same as on the surface. Thus,

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

This is the work done to move a charged particle from infinity
to a point in an electric field. It is measured in Joules
E =Qq/4πЄor
Potential difference (‘p.d.’)
 The p.d. between two points in an electric field is numerically equal to the work
done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other

So, p.d. equals 'work done per unit charge' = work/charge.

Thus, the work W done in moving a charge Q through a p.d. V is given
by:

Note: The work done in taking a charge around a closed loop is zero - since it arrives
back at its original point, and so the p.d. between its start and end points is zero.
Parallel plates

A battery is applied to two flat, parallel metal plates and produces an electric field as
represented above.

38
Near the edges the field in not uniform, and so is not given accurately
by this equation.

Equipotentials
In an isolated conductor there can be no differences in potential, since
these would set up potential gradients ( electric fields), and charges
would redistribute themselves until they had destroyed the field.
Any surface or volume over which the potential is constant is called an
equipotential. The surface or volume may be that of a material body or
a surface or a volume in space.
Since the change in potential between any two points in an
equipotential surface is zero, there is no potential gradient, so there is
no electric field. Electric field lines are therefore at right angles to
equipotential surfaces, since the field lines then do not have
components in the surface.
a) All spheres centred on a point charge are equipotential surfaces:

b) The potential gradient between two parallel metal plates is constant (apart from at the
edges) and all planes parallel to and between the plates are equipotential surfaces:

Electric field strength, E = 3V/3cm = 1 V/cm.

39
The above represents the basic structure of a capacitor.

SHIELDING FROM ELECTRIC FIELD

The Faraday cage is used to protect any persons or instrument from
intense electric field. The cage is a hollow conductor. In the industry it
is used for high voltage measurement. To prevent external field the
cage is earthed.

CAPACITORS

BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
A capacitor is a device that can store electric charge. It is basically a
very simple device consisting of two metal sheets, separated by an
insulating material. Often, in practical capacitors, the sheets are rolled
up, so the capacitor becomes cylindrical, and is similar to a roly-poly
pudding in cross-section.

The above represents a capacitor made of two metal plates, with a battery applied across
them. There is a current while the capacitor is ‘charging up’  electrons flow from one
plate to the other. When charging is complete, the p.d. across the capacitor equals that of
the battery.
When charged up, an electric field exists between the plates. The
direction of the field is defined as that of the force on a positive charge
placed between the plates. If charge q were between the plates and
experienced a force F, then the magnitude of the electric field, denoted
by E.
From this we get the more commonly used, but equivalent, unit for E of
volts per metre (Vm1).

If the voltage across a capacitor is too great, the insulator breaks

down, and becomes a conductor. This can make the capacitor get hot
or even explode. The working voltage of a capacitor is normally written
on it, indicating the maximum voltage that can be safely applied to it.

40
Types of Capacitor

Capacitors are one of the primary electrical components, acting as

stores of charge in circuits. Capacitance is measured in Farads, or more
usefully, microfarads Three common types of capacitor are
illustrated below.

Variable capacitors are commonly used in radio tuning sets. They

consist of semicircular aluminium or brass plates separated by air. One
set of plates is fixed and the other is rotated by a knob to change the
overlap hence the capacitance.

Mansbridge capacitors consist of two long strips of tinfoil separated by

thin waxed paper or polyester film. These are rolled up and sealed
inside a metal box to prevent entry of moisture.

Electrolytic capacitors take the form of two sheets of aluminium foil

separated by muslin soaked in a type of ammonium borate, rolled up
and sealed in an insulating container. Wires attached to the foil strips
are then connected to a battery. Electrolysis takes place and a thin film
of aluminium oxide forms on the positive foil. This is an insulator and
serves as the dielectric. Very large and compact capacitances may be
made this way.

Capacitance

41
The capacitance C of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge in
coulombs to the potential difference in volts.

From the definition, the unit of capacitance is C/V or CV1 ('coulombs

per volt'), which we call the farad, F: i.e. 1F = 1CV.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CAPACITACE OF A CAPACITOR

1.(Common) area of plates: Increasing the area of plates increases
capacitance since more charges can be stored.
2.Distance between plates/separation of plates:Increasing the distance
between plates decreases capacitance because the potential
difference increases due to work done against the force of attraction of
the plates
3.Permittivity/Nature of dielectric: Placing an insulating medium
between the plates increases capacitance but lowers the potential

C = ЄA/d
C =Capacitance
A= (Common) area of plates
d= distance of separation
Є =permittivity

Uses of capacitors
1.To separate ac from dc( by coupling and decoupling)
2.To control current in an ac circuit
3.To store charge/energy
4.To smoothen the output of power supply
5,To control the frequency of oscillators
6.In the tuning of a radio receiver(I n the resonant circuit made
of coil and a variable capacitor)
7.In the ignition system of motor vehicles
8.In the elimination of sparks in induction coil

Energy stored in a capacitor

A graph of p.d. versus charge is a straight line through the origin:

42
Example

a. find the charge on the capacitor

b. find the energy stored using each of the above equations

43
CAPACITOR COMBINATIONS
Capacitors in parallel

Key facts:
1. There is the same p.d. V across each capacitor
2. The total charge stored, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

We want to find the single capacitor equivalent to all three, i.e. what capacitor C would
store the same charge as the above three if the same p.d. were applied across it?

44
C may be referred to as the equivalent or effective or combined
capacitance.

By fact (1) we do not need a subscript on V since the p.d. is the same
for each.
And, by fact (2):

Notice that this expression is similar to that for resistors in series.

Capacitors in series

Key facts:
1. There is the same charge on each capacitor
2. V = V1 + V2 + V3

What single capacitor C would carry the charge Q if the p.d. V were applied across it?

45
By fact (1) we do not need a subscript on Q since the charge is the
same for each.
And, by fact (2):

Notice that this expression is similar to that for resistors in parallel.

Example
Find the single capacitor equivalent to:

Example
Find the single capacitor equivalent to:

46
Example
Find the single capacitor equivalent to:

For the capacitors in series,

47
Notice that V1+V2= 100V, the applied voltage.
Joining two capacitors

The two capacitors are initially separate. When joined (the dotted lines):
1. The total capacitance, C = C1 + C2
2. The capacitors acquire the same p.d.

48
 3. The total charge remains constant

Example
In (a), capacitor C1 has been charged by a 60V supply.
In (b), C1 has been joined across an uncharged capacitor C2.

49
We see that the final amount of stored energy is less than the initial
amount. When the capacitors are joined, current has to flow to achieve
the redistribution of charge, and this generates some heat loss.

DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR

With S in position 1, the capacitor will charge up to its maximum value of Q0 = CV0.
When S is moved to position 2, the capacitor will start to discharge through R:
a) Charge
The charge starts at its maximum value and then falls to zero:

The 'decay' is referred to as being 'exponential', the variation of Q with time obeying
the equation:

Where 'e' is a number with the value 2.718 ........... It is the base of
'natural logarithms'.

50
CHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR

a) Charge
When the switch S is closed, the charge on the capacitor rises from
zero to its maximum value of Q0 = CV0. The variation of charge Q with
time t has the form:

The charge Q on the capacitor at time t seconds after the switch is closed is given by the
equation:



51
CURRENT MEASURING DEVICES
The moving coil meter movement (also known as a galvanometer) was
invented by the French physicist and physician, Jacques-Arsène D'
Arsonval in 1882. It is the basis for all modern meter movements. It
can only measure direct current.

Moving Coil Meter Essential Parts

When a current flow in the coil in the presence of a magnetic field,

according to Flemings left hand rule(motor rule) an equal and opposite
parallel forces act respectively on the two vertical sides of the coil.
Those two forces together form a deflecting couple which causes the
coil to rotate until the deflecting couple is just balanced by the control
couple set up by the hairspring. The soft iron cylinder concentrates the
magnetic flux in the annular space. The angle rotated is proportional to
the strength of the current.

Features
1.A rectangular coil with many turns
2.A powerful radial magnetic field between curved pole pieces N and S and a soft
iron
3. Springs to control the angle of rotation of the coil
4.A light pointer attached to the axis about which the coil rotates
5.A uniform linear scale to measure current

52
MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER
A galvanometer detects small currents (it can be calibrated to act as
an ammeter or voltmeter). It consists of a coil of thin, insulated copper
wire which is suspended in a magnetic field and is able to rotate,
carrying a pointer with it.

The curved pole pieces and the soft-iron cylinder produce a radial field
in the air gap, so the plane of the coil is always parallel to the field.
Thus, a constant torque is produced when a constant current flows
through the coil.

The rotation of the coil is limited by the opposing torque produced by hair springs. These
are wound opposite ways, so that the rotation is opposed, whichever way it is.

Factors that increase the sensitivity of a moving coil galvanometer

1. A coil of large area

53
2.A large number of turns in the coil

3. A strong magnetic field

4.A weak hair spring to give a small control couple

Moving Iron Instruments – Voltmeter and

Ammeter

Analog ammeter and voltmeter designed to measure a.c. current and a.c.
voltage

Construction and basic principle operation of moving-iron instruments

Moving­iron instruments are generally used to measure alternating voltages

and currents. In moving­iron instruments the movable system consists of one or
more pieces of specially­shaped soft iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted
upon by themagnetic field produced by the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving­iron instruments namely:

1. Repulsion (or double iron) type (figure 1)

2. Attraction (or single­iron) type (figure 2)

54
.
The brief description of different components of a moving­iron instrument is
given below:
 Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
 Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and
also to magnetize the iron pieces.
 In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with
the same polarity.
 Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
 Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting
of an air chamber and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
 Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a
graduated scale.
Top

How it works?

Typical scheme of measuring. current and voltage

The deflecting torque in any moving­iron instrument is due to forces on a small
piece of magnetically ‘soft’ iron that is magnetized by a coil carrying
theoperating current. In repulsion type moving–iron instrument consists of two
cylindrical soft iron vanes mounted within a fixed current­carrying coil. One iron
vane is held fixed to the coil frame and other is free to rotate, carrying with it the
pointer shaft. Two irons lie in the magnetic field produced by the coil that
consists of only few turns if the instrument is an ammeter or of many turns if the
instrument is a voltmeter.

55
Current in the coil induces both vanes to become magnetized and repulsion
between the similarly magnetized vanes produces a proportional rotation. The
deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current in the coil, making
the instrument reading is a true ‘RMS’ quantity Rotation is opposed by a
hairspring that produces the restoring torque. Only the fixed coil carries load
current, and it is constructed so as to withstand high transient current.

Moving iron instruments having scales that are nonlinear and somewhat
crowded in the lower range of calibration.

Figure 1 ­ Repulsion moving iron­instrument

56
Figure 2 ­ Attraction moving iron instrument

Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current

 Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter and Ammeter only.

 Both can work on AC as well as on DC.
Ammeter
 Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.
 Always connected in series with the circuit and carries the current to be
measured.
 This current flowing through the coil produces the desired deflecting
torque.
 It should have low resistance as it is to be connected in series.
Voltmeter
 Instrument used to measure voltage between two points in a circuit.
 Always connected in parallel.
 Current flowing through the operating coil of the meter produces
deflecting torque.
 It should have high resistance. Thus a high resistance of order of kilo
ohms is connected in series with the coil of the instrument.
Top

Ranges of Ammeter and Voltmeter

 For a given moving­iron instrument the ampere­turns necessary to
produce full­scale deflection are constant.

57
  One can alter the range of ammeters by providing a shunt coil with the
moving coil.
 Voltmeter range may be altered connecting a resistance in series with
the coil. Hence the same coil winding specification may be employed for a
number of ranges.
Advantages
 The instruments are suitable for use in AC and DC circuits.
 The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
 The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
 Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
 Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
Errors
 Error due to variation in temperature.
 Error due to friction is quite small as torque­weight ratio is high in moving
coil instruments.
 Stray fields cause relatively low values of magnetizing force produced by
the coil. Efficient magnetic screening is essential to reduce this effect.
 Error due to variation of frequency causes change of reactance of the
coil and also changes the eddy currents induced in neighbouring metal.
 Deflecting torque is not exactly proportional to the square of the current
due to non­linear characteristics of iron material.

An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric

current in a circuit. Ammeters are connected in series in a circuit
Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name.
Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or
microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or
microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which
relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th
century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted
in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power
systems.

58
An ammeter is said to be accurate, if the current it measures is
close to the true value of the current flowing through the
instrument
An ammeter is said to be sensitive, if it can measure very small
current.

Sensitivity of current meter is the deflection per unit current

Ө/I
Sensitivity of voltmeter is deflection per unit pd

AMMETERS AND VOLTMETERS

In measuring I and V in dia. (a) we do not want to change their values.

Therefore:
 the ammeter (dia. (b)) should have a low resistance compared to R (so I is not
changed)
 the voltmeter (dia. (c)) should have a high resistance compared to R (so negligible
current goes though it)

Conversion of a galvanometer/microammeter into an ammeter

We can do this by putting a low value resistor in parallel with it, called a shunt.

59
An fsd occurs when 0.0001A, flows through the meter. We want an fsd when a total
current of 1A flows, so the rest of the 1A, i.e. 0.9999A, must flow through the shunt S.
The shunt and the meter are in parallel, so:

Thus, using a shunt resistor of value 0.1 ohm turns the microammeter
into an ammeter reading up to 1A.
Now, if R = resistance of the above set-up, then:

Thus, the combined resistance is low, just as is required for an

ammeter.
Conversion of a galvanometer/ microammeter into a voltmeter
The same microammeter can be converted to a voltmeter reading
01V by putting a high value resistor in series with it, called a

multiplier.
An fsd occurs when 0.0001A, flows through the meter. When this occurs the p.d. across
the meter = I R = 0.0001*1000 = 0.1V. We want a meter that can read up to 1V, so the
rest of the voltage, i.e. 0.9V, must appear across the multiplier M.

60
The total resistance is (fairly) high (1000 + 9000 ohms), as is required
for a voltmeter.

Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted
upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of
meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to
the moving coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron
element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a fixed
vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows
through the coil and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes
repel each other and the moving vane deflects against the restoring
force provided by fine helical springs. The non-linear scale of these
meters makes them unpopular.
There are two types
1.Repulsion moving iron instrument
2. Attraction moving iron instrument
In a hot-wire ammeter, a current passes through a wire which
expands as it heats. Although these instruments have slow response
time and low accuracy, they were sometimes used in measuring radio-
frequency current.
Digital ammeter designs use an analog to digital converter (ADC) to
measure the voltage across the shunt resistor; the digital display is
calibrated to read the current through the shunt.

RESISTIVITY
By experiment we find that the resistance, R, of a material is:

Thus, for example, if we double the length, R is doubled, if we double

the area, R is halved.
An expression such as the above can be turned into an equation by
introducing a ‘constant of proportionality’. In this case, the constant is
called the 'resistivity' of the material. Thus:

61
From this, the unit of resistivity = ohm m2/m = ohm metres
Note: Resistivity is a property of a material, rather than of a particular
conductor. Given the value of resistivity of a material, we can
determine the resistance of a particular wire sample from its
dimensions using the equation above for R.
Example

Germanium is an example of a 'semiconductor', its resistivity being

between that of a very good conductor and a very good insulator.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

1. The length of the conductor.
2. The nature of the material of the conductor (Resistivity)
3. Cross sectional area of the conductor.
4. Temperature of the conductor

62
Conductance is defined as the reciprocal of resistance.
Conductivity is defined as the reciprocal of resistivity

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

The unit of temperature coefficient can be 0Cor K1.

Note: Zero kelvins (0K) = -273 0C, and is called 'absolute zero', and is
believed to be the lowest possible temperature.

The definition produces the average value of the temperature

coefficient over the temperature range used (it may not the same over
all temperature ranges).
Rearranging the definition gives:

Example

Ohms law states that the steady current flowing through a metallic
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across the
wire provided temperature and other physical conditions are kept
constant.
Ohmic conductors are pure metals like tungsten

A tungsten filament lamp

Results are obtained as previously described. The I-V and V-I graphs
have the shapes:

63
The graphs indicate that the resistance increases as the current increases.
A mentioned before, when an electric current flows through a metal,
the electrons undergo repeated collisions with metal atoms which are
at fixed sites, which impedes the progress of the electrons. For the
filament, as the current increases, the filament gets hotter. As the
filament gets hotter, the atoms vibrate more strongly. Thus, they
effectively present a bigger cross-sectional area to electrons, resulting
in more collisions, thus impeding electrons even more, resulting in a
greater resistance.

NON-OHMIC BEHAVIOUR
The circuit described earlier for verifying Ohm's law can be used to
investigate the V-I characteristics of other conductors. The conductor
labelled R in that circuit now represents one of the following:
A thermistor
The term thermistor comes from thermal resistor. As the name
suggests, its resistance depends on its temperature.

A thermistor is a semiconductor. One commonly used type is an NTC type, for which
resistance falls significantly as the temperature rises. When such a thermistor is heated,
more electrons are liberated from their bonds and are free to then act as current carriers,
hence the drop in resistance.
In the previous Ohm's law set up, R would be replaced by a thermistor.
This would be coated in varnish to make it water resistant, and then
immersed in water which would be gradually heated. The resistance
could be determined over a range of temperatures - for example, the
thermistor could be initially be placed in ice-water which is then
gradually heated to boiling.

64
Thermistors can be used to detect very small temperature changes and, for example, be
used in a thermostat.

A semiconductor diode
This device allows a current to flow in one direction through itself, but
not in the opposite direction. The circuit symbol indicates the direction
that (conventional) current flows easily:

The previous experiment would be done with the diode in place of R. It could be done
with the diode 'forward biased' and then 'reverse biased'. A graph of current against
voltage is typically like:

65
Light emitting diodes (‘LEDs’) are used as indicators in many electronic
devices, and often glow red or green when a current passes through
them - circuit symbol:

A light dependent resistor ('LDR') is also a non-ohmic device. Its resistance depends upon
the amount of light falling on it - circuit symbol:

METALS, SEMICONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

Resistivites compared

1. Conduction in metals
Metals have low resistivities, i.e. they are very good conductors of
electricity.
Each atom in a metal has one or more loosely bound electrons which
can escape from the atom and wander throughout the metal. It is these
‘free electrons’ which take part in conduction when a potential
difference is applied across a metal. In the absence of a p.d., the
random motion of the free electrons does not constitute an electric
current since there is no net movement in any particular direction.
Since about one electron escapes from each atom, there are many
millions of electrons available to act as ‘current carriers’ or ‘conduction
electrons’.

66
Insulators do not have free electrons (at room temperature) and so are
poor conductors.
Conduction in semiconductors
The most commonly used semiconductors are germanium and silicon.
These are both tetravalent, i.e. each atom has four electrons in its
outermost shell that can take part in bonding with neighbouring atoms.

In a pure semiconductor at absolute zero there are no free electrons - they are all in
bonds. So a semiconductor at absolute zero is an insulator.
Note: Absolute zero (= 2730C = zero kelvins, OK) is believed to be the
lowest possible temperature.
Intrinsic semiconduction
Above absolute zero some electrons are liberated by thermal
vibrations, and are free to act as current carriers. Thus, the
conductivity of a semiconductor increases with temperature  or
equivalently, its resistivity falls.
When an electron escapes from a bond, it leaves behind a vacancy
called a ‘hole’, which is a region of net positive charge. When a p.d. is
applied across a semiconductor, the free electrons drift towards the
positive terminal. But also a bound electron can jump into a nearby
hole, and the hole is transferred to the atom just vacated. This
happens repeatedly.
We can represent this as:

For convenience we can think of the holes as being real positive particles (charge equal
but opposite to that of electrons) moving to the left:

67
Thus, in a pure semiconductor we visualise conduction being due to two types of current
carriers:
1. negative free electrons drifting towards the positive terminal
2. positive holes drifting towards the negative terminal

The mechanism is called intrinsic semiconduction. Notice that an intrinsic semiconductor

is pure and has equal numbers of electrons and holes (each liberated electron produces
one hole).

Extrinsic semiconduction
Small amounts of certain elements can be added to, say, germanium
without distorting its crystal structure. This is called ‘doping’ and the
added atoms are called ‘impurities’.
The added atoms are either pentavalent (i.e. have 5 valence electrons,
e.g. antimony, Sb) or trivalent (i.e. have 3 valence electrons, e.g.
indium, In).
If antimony is added, the extra 5th electron is not needed for bonding,
and so each Sb atom provides an extra free electron. In pure
germanium, only about 1 atom it 10 10 provides a conduction electron.
Thus, doping of only 1 part in 10 6 produces a large increase in
conduction electrons. The extra electrons now outnumber the original
holes, and are referred to as the ‘majority carriers’, the holes being the
‘minority carriers’. The result is called an n-type’ semiconductor, since
the majority carriers are negative electrons.
If trivalent indium is added to germanium, each atom introduces an
extra hole into the lattice structure. The positive holes are the majority
carriers, and the semiconductor is called a p-type.
Semiconductor diodes and transistors are based on n-type and p-type
semiconductors.

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
At extremely low temperatures, the resistance of some materials drops
to almost zero. The phenomenon is called superconductivity and such
a material is called a superconductor.

68
In 1911 Onnes showed that a superconductor carried a current for
several hours after the supply had been turned off. Thus, a
superconductor carrying a current generates negligible heat loss.
A superconductor carrying a current is surrounded by a magnetic field.
Such a conductor could float over a magnet for as long as the current
persisted. This has suggested the possibility of superconductors as a
basis for frictionless bearings. Many machines have rotating parts
supported by bearings, and these are a source of wear and heat due to
friction.
The temperature at which a material becomes superconducting is
called its transition temperature. For some materials this temperature
is not far above absolute zero (-273 0C).
Materials are now known which have transition temperatures much
higher, and it is hoped that ‘room temperature’ superconductors will be
found.




BALANCED POTENTIALS: WHEATSTONE BRIDGE AND

POTENTIOMETER
1. Wheatstone bridge

69
P, Q and S are resistors whose values can be controlled. R is an unknown resistor.
One or more of P, Q and S are adjusted until galvanometer G shows no deflection, and
the bridge is then said to be ‘balanced’.
G is used as a ‘current detector’ rather than a ‘current measurer’, so it
needs to be sensitive to current rather than be well calibrated, i.e. it
should give a visible deflection for a very small current.
At balance:
 no current flows along the vertical branch, so I1 flows through R and Q and I2
flows through P and S
 the p.d. across G is zero (otherwise there would be a current through it), so:

Thus, if P, Q and S are known, then the value of R can be found.

Note: A procedure in which conditions are varied so that an instrument
reads zero is called a 'null method'. The Wheatstone bridge is a null
method of determining resistance. An advantage of the method is that
the accuracy of the result does not depend upon the accurate
calibration of an instrument - though it does depend on its sensitivity.

Metre bridge

70
This is the simplest practical form of a Wheatstone bridge.

C is a moveable contact called a ‘jockey’. The resistors Q and R consist

of the bare wire AB of uniform cross section, one metre long, with a
resistance of several ohms. The wire is usually attached to a metre
ruler (not shown). Q is a standard resistance whose value is accurately
known. R is an unknown resistance.
With the key closed, C is pressed against the wire to make contact. It is
moved in steps until G reads zero, i.e. until the bridge is balanced.

Thus, we only need to determine the ratio of the balance lengths, and
know the value of the standard resistor Q, to then determine the value
of R.
Notes:
1. D is not dragged along the wire, since that would spoil its uniformity,
and make the above theory less valid (cancelling the As assumes A is
constant along the length of the wire)
2. It is a good idea to protect G from large currents that may occur
when the jockey D is well away from the balance point.

71
The key is initially open until balance is nearly found, then it is closed. This prevents a
large current passing through G when well away from balance but allows the sensitivity
of G to be exploited when close to balance, to accurately locate the balance point.
3. The value of Q is chosen to give a balance point close to the middle
of the wire. This means that any errors in L1 and L2 are about the same.
4. Having found the balance point and calculated R, then R and Q are
reversed and R determined again, and its average value found. This
helps to compensate for:
 end-errors (due to ‘contact resistances’, caused by dirt)
 error due to a non-uniform wire
 metre rule incorrectly placed

Precautions

1. Ensure that all connections are tight.

2. The jockey should be tapped lightly on the wire and not scrapped
3. Ensure that the switch is open when not taking readings
4. Repeated readings should be taken

2. Potentiometer
This consists of a wire of uniform cross-section, with several ohms
resistance, through which a ‘driver’ cell passes a steady current.

Observation

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The reading V on the voltmeter steadily increases as the jockey is moved from A to C. We
observe that V is directly proportional to L, as expected, since if the length L has
resistance RL, then:

Calibration
We say that the potentiometer is calibrated when we know the
‘potential gradient’ along the wire:
 potential gradient equals voltage across each cm of wire

In the previous set-up, we could simply divide the emf of the driver cell (2V) by the
length of the wire (1m = 100cm) to get the potential gradient = 2/100 = 0.02Vcm.
To get a more accurate calibration, we use a standard cell, as below,
whose emf is accurately known.

Notice that the positive terminals of both the driver cell V and the standard cell E0 are
attached to end A.
As with the Wheatstone bridge, we want to find a point along the wire
at which G reads zero, the 'balance point', so this is also a 'null
method'. Again, in practice G should be protected from large currents.
Initially, J should be touched to ends A and C in turn, to check that G
gives opposite deflections, in which case there must be a balance
point somewhere between A and C, at which G gives no deflection.
Suppose that E0 = 1.57 V, and balance length L0 = 84.0 cm

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Uses of potentiometer
a) Measuring an unknown emf and comparing emfs
Once the potentiometer is calibrated, i.e. once we know the potential
gradient, the volts per cm, we can measure unknown emfs. If the
standard cell in the previous diagram is replaced by a cell of unknown
emf E and a balance length L is found, then:

The balance length(s) should be as long as possible for maximum

accuracy. An initial check should be made to determine which of E and
E0 produces the greater balance length, and then R should be adjusted
to make the longer one as long as possible. Subsequently, R is
unchanged, since that would alter the potential gradient.
An advantage of using a potentiometer in measuring the emf of a cell
is that no current flows through the cell at balance and the value of its
emf can be found accurately (recall from earlier notes that when a
current flows through a cell, its internal resistance causes its terminal
p.d. to be is less than its emf).
Also, the accuracy of the method does not depend on the calibration of
the galvanometer, as it is a null method (though it does depend upon
its sensitivity).
b) Measuring small emfs
A thermocouple consists of two different metals with their bare ends
twisted together to form junctions, as represented below. If the
junctions are at different temperatures, a small emf is produced
(typically a few mV).

74
A potentiometer can be used to measure small emfs. Consider the following:

The potentiometer wire AC is 1.00m long and its resistance is 10.0 ohms. The driver cell
has negligible internal resistance. Between X and Y is a thermocouple with one junction
in ice-water, and the other in boiling water. The balance point is found at J, with AJ =
0.75m.
The total resistance RT of the 990 ohm resistor and the 10 ohm wire =
1000 ohms. At balance, no current goes through G, so the current I though
AC at balance is found from:

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This is the p.d. across AJ produced by the driver cell and, as the
potentiometer is balanced, it is exactly balanced by the emf produced
by the thermocouple, i.e. the emf of the thermocouple is 15 mV
With the 990 ohm resistor as shown, the p.d. across AC is only 20mV,
and hence we get a long balance length with the thermocouple.
Without the 990 ohmresistor in place the balance length would be very
short, making the determination of the emf of the thermocouple
inaccurate.
©
Advantages of using Potentiometer over voltmeter
1.The potentiometer measures emf when the cell is in open circuit,
hence a more accurate reading is obtained.
2. The potentiometer measures a wider range of potential difference
and is more sensitive than the voltmeter.
3. The pointer on the voltmeter can be faulty

Precautions
Same as the metre bridge.


ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolytic Cells
An electrolytic cell is a cell in which the energy from an applied voltage
is used to drive an otherwise nonspontaneous reaction. Such a cell

76
could be produced by applying a reverse voltage to a voltaic cell like
the Daniell cell.

If a voltage greater than 1.10 volts is applied as illustrated to a cell

under standard conditions, then the reaction
Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq) -> Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)
will be driven by removing Cu from the copper electrode and plating
zinc on the zinc electrode.

 
Definition of terms

Electrolysis decomposition of compound using electric current

Electrolyte an ionic compound which conducts electric current in
molten or aqueous solution, being decomposed in the
process.
Electrode a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves
electrolyte during electrolysis.
Reactions occur at electrodes.
Discharge the removal of electrons from negative ions to form
atoms or the gain of electrons of positive ions to
become atoms.

77
Anode positive electrode connected to positive terminal of d.c.
source.
Oxidation occurs here.
Anode loses negative charge as electrons flow towards
the battery, leaving anode positively charged.
This causes anion to discharge its electrons here to
replace lost electrons and also, negative charge are
attracted to positive charge.
Cathode negative electrode connected to negative terminal of
d.c. source.
Reduction occurs here.
Cathode gains negative charge as electrons flow from
the battery towards the cathode, making cathode
negatively charged.
This causes cation to be attracted and gains electrons
to be an atom.
Anion negative ion
attracted to anode.
Cation positive ion
attracted to cathode.

Non-electrolytes Weak electrolytes Strong electrolytes

Organic liquids or Weak acids and Strong acids, alkalis
solutions alkalis and salt solutions
ethanol C2H5OH limewater Ca(OH)2 aqueous sulphuric acid
tetrachloromethane ammonia solution NH3 H2SO4
CCl4 aqueous ethanonoic aqueous nitric acid
trichloromethane acid CH3COOH HNO3
CHCl3 aqueous sulphurous aqueous hydrochloric
pure water H2O acid H2SO3 acid HCl
sugar solution aqueous carbonic acid aqueous potassium
C12H22O11 H2CO3 hydroxide KOH
molten sulphur S aqueous sodium
hydroxide NaOH
copper(II) sulphate
solution CuSO4

Faradays Laws of Electrolysis

1.The first law states that the mass of a substance liberated during electrolysis is
proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte.

M  Q

78
 M  It
M = z it

M = Mass of the substance liberated

Z = electrochemical equivalent
I =current
t = time

2. The second law states that the relative masses of substances liberated by
the same quantity of electricity are proportional to their electrochemical
equivalent.

Use of electrolysis
1. Electroplating
2. Purification of metals
3. calibration of ammeter
4. Electrotyping
5. Extraction of metals
6. Electrolytic preparation of metals from their compounds

Electrolysis of Molten Compounds

Molten/aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity because ions free to move.
In solid state, these ions are held in fixed position within the crystal lattice.
Hence solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
When molten binary compound is electrolysed, metal is formed on cathode while
non-metal is formed on anode.

Electrolysis of Concentrated NaCl

79
What happens:

Ions Present: Na+, H+, OH- and Cl-

Reaction at Anode
Cl- loses electrons at anode to become Cl atoms, although OH - is easier to
discharge.
Cl atoms created form covalent bond together to make Cl 2 gas.
2Cl- (aq) --> Cl2 (g) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas
2H+ (aq) + 2e- --> H2 (l)
Overall Equation

2HCl(l) --> H2(l) + Cl2(g)

Note: any cation and anion left undischarged in solution forms new bonds
between them.
E.g. in above, leftovers Na+ and OH- combine to form NaOH.

B. Very Dilute Solutions

Electrolysis of Dilute H2SO4

What happens:

Ions Present: H+, OH- and SO42-

Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH- (aq) --> O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-
Reaction at Cathode
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq) + 2e- --> H2 (g)
Overall Equation
Both equations must be balanced first.
The cathode equation is short 2 electrons. Hence, we should first even them by
multiplying cathode equation by 2.
(2H+(aq) + 2e- --> H2 (g)) x 2 = 4H +(aq) + 4e- --> 2H2 (g)
Now we can combine the equations, forming:
4H+ (aq) + 4OH+ (aq) --> 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
4H+ and 4OH+ ions, however, combine to form 4H2O molecules.
Hence: 4H2O (l) --> 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)+ 2H2O (l)
H2O molecules are formed on both sides.
Therefore, they cancel the coefficients: 2H2O (l) --> 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

80
Since only water is electrolysed, the sulfuric acid now only becomes
concentrated.
Electrolysis using different types of electrodes
Inert Electrodes are electrodes which do not react with electrolyte or products
during electrolysis.
Eg. platinum and graphite.
Active Electrodes are electrodes which react with products of electrolysis,
affecting the course of electrolysis.
Eg. copper.

A. Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Inert Electrodes (e.g. carbon)

What happens:

Ions Present: Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-

Reaction at Anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH- (aq) --> O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) +4e-
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming liquid copper.
Hydrogen ions are not discharged because copper is easier to discharge.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- --> Cu (s)
Overall Equation
Both equations must be balanced first.
The cathode equation is short 2 electrons. Hence, we should first even them by
multiplying cathode equation by 2.
(Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- --> Cu (s)) x 2 = 2Cu2+ (aq) + 4e- --> 2Cu (s)
Now we can combine the equations, forming:
2Cu(OH)2 (aq) --> 2Cu (s) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
Since copper ions in solution are used up, the blue colour fades.
Hydrogen and sulphate ions left forms sulphuric acid.
B. Electrolysis of CuSO4 Using Active Electrodes (e.g. copper)

Ions Present: Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-

Reaction at Anode
Both SO42- and OH- gets attracted here but not discharged. Instead, the copper
anode discharged by losing electrons to form Cu2+. So, the electrode size
decreases.
Cu (s) --> Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Cu2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms
becoming copper. Hence, the copper is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- --> Cu (s)
Overall Change

81
There is no change in solution contents as for every lost of Cu 2+ ions at cathode
is replaced by Cu2+ ions released by dissolving anode.
Only the cathode increases size by gaining copper and anode decreases size by
losing copper.
We can use this method to create pure copper on cathode by using pure copper
on cathode and impure copper on anode.
Impurities of anode falls under it.

Electroplating
Electroplating is coating an object with thin layer of metal by electrolysis. This
makes the object protected and more attractive.
Object to be plated is made to be cathode and the plating metal is made as
anode.
The electrolyte MUST contain plating metal cation.
Plating Iron object with Nickel

Reaction at Anode
Ni2+ discharged from anode into solution. So, the electrode size decreases.
Ni (s) --> Ni2+ (aq) + 2e-
Reaction at Cathode
Ni2+ produced from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Ni atoms
becoming nickel. Hence, the nickel is deposited here and the electrode grows.
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e- --> Ni (s)

Overall Change
There is no change in solution contents while iron object receives nickel deposit.
Uses of Electroplating
Creation of Electric Cells by Electrolysis
A Simple cell or an Electric cell is a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy, and it consists of 2 electrodes made of 2 metals of different
reactivity.
In a simple cell, the MORE REACTIVE metal/electrode is ALWAYS
designated the NEGATIVE electrode
The anode (negative electrode) is made of more reactive metal. This is because
they have more tendency of losing electrons.
The cathode (positive electrode) is made of less reactive metal.
The further apart the metals in the reactivity series, the higher the voltage
created.
The electrons in a simple cell will ALWAYS flow from the NEGATIVE
electrode (made of the MORE reactive metal) to the POSITIVE electrode.
Eg. A simple electric cell using zinc and copper

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Observation: bubbles of hydrogen gas appear at the copper rod.

Explanation: Zinc is more reactive than copper. Thus, it is more electropositive

than copper, meaning that zinc loses electrons more easily than copper. As a
result, oxidation occurs at the zinc rod (the anode) and zinc metal loses
electrons to become zinc ions, that is, Zn (s) - 2e- --> Zn2+(aq)

The electrons then flow from the zinc rod to the copper rod through the external
circuit. At the copper rod, reduction occurs - the hydrogen ions in solution accept
these electrons to form hydrogen gas;
2H+(aq) + 2e- --> H2 (g)
This explains why bubbles of gas are produced at the copper rod when the two
rods are connected by a wire.

The magnitude of the voltage (potential difference) is related to the positions of

the two metals in the reactivity series. The further apart the two metals, the larger
will be the potential difference (voltage) produced.

Electrochemical cell vs Electrolytic cell

Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell
Converts chemical energy into Converts electrical energy into
electrical energy chemical energy
Redox reaction is spontaneous Redox reaction is not
and is responsible for the spontaneous and electrical energy
production of electrical energy has to be supplied to initiate the
reaction
The two half-cells are set up in Both the electrodes are placed in
different containers which are the same container in a solution of

83
connected through a salt bridge molten electrolyte.
or porous partition
The anode is the negative The anode is the positive
electrode while the cathode is electrode while the cathode is the
the positive electrode. negative electrode.
The reaction at the anode is The reaction at the anode is
oxidation and the reaction at oxidation and the reaction at the
the cathode is reduction. cathode is reduction.
Electrons are supplied by the An external battery supplies the
species getting oxidized. electrons, which enter through the
They move from anode to the cathode and come out through
cathode in the external circuit. the anode.
Factors affecting electrolysis
Concentration
Type of electrode
Concentration
If the concentration of a particular ion is high, then this can alter the preferential
discharge
If dilute hydrochloric acid is electrolysed, hydrogen gas is given off at the cathode
and oxygen gas at the anode. However, when concentrated hydrochloric acid is
electrolysed, hydrogen gas is still given off at the cathode, but chlorine gas is
given off at the anode.
This is because although the chloride ion is harder to discharge than the
hydroxide ion, its high concentration makes it more likely to be discharged.
Type of electrode

Eg. electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution

Use Carbon Electrodes:

Carbon electrodes are inert and so do not affect the electrolysis
At the anode, we have a choice of sulphate or hydroxide ions, and hydroxide
ions are easier to discharge so oxygen gas is given at the anode
4OH- (aq) + O2 (g) ---> O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-
At the cathode, we have a choice of copper or hydrogen ions. Copper ions are
easier to discharge so we will see a pink deposit of copper metal on the carbon
electrode
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ---> Cu (s)
Use Copper Electrodes
Copper electrodes are active and so will affect electrolysis
At the anode, the copper electrode dissolves into solution
Cu (s) ---> Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-
At the cathode, the copper ions are deposited as pink copper metal
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e- ---> Cu (s)

84
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN GAS
Cold cathode-produced by low current and high potential difference

Discharge lamps consist of gas at low pressure glass tube with metal
electrodes at each end. When a high voltage is applied the gas glows
with a colour characteristic of the gas. The electric field set up inside
the tube causes ions in the gas to move with high speeds. The ions
collide with atoms in the gas, excitation of the atoms occurs, and when
they become de - excited, light of a particular colour is emitted.
Discharge lamps are about five times more efficient than filament
lamps.

Fluorescent lamps are similar to discharge lamps with the difference

that the inside of the glass tube is coated with minerals. Part of the
light emitted by a discharge lamp is in the ultraviolet region. When the
light hits the minerals that coat the inside of the glass case they emit
visible light of certain colours. Several minerals may be used to
produce light of the required colour.

The principle behind the lighting in a fluorescent tube is electrical

conduction through gases

Factors that affect the colour of light in a fluorescent tube

1. Nature of gas in the tube

2. The coating of the tube

Thermionic emission

HOT CATHODE-produced by high current and low voltage

A vacuum diode consists of a glass bulb containing two electrodes. One

electrode is called the anode and the other is the cathode. The cathode
is made up of tungsten filament. The cathode can be heated by a high
current connected to the filament. This filament when heated will
release electrons from its surface. These electrons can be attracted to
the anode when there is a high potential difference applied between
the anode and the cathode.

85
The filament is connected to a 6 volt external battery (usually). When it
is heated, a large number of electrons are free to move. As a result, a
cloud of electrons is found outside the metal surface of the filament.
Many of these electrons are held back by the attractive force of the
atomic nucleus. Some of the electrons gained enough energy and
escape from its surface. This effect is called thermionic emission.
Thus,Thermionic emission is the ejection of electrons from hot
metals or Thermionic emission can be defined as the escape of
high energy electrons from the surface of a metal e.g.
tungsten filament. The electrons in a heated metal are of high
energy.

Thermionic emission can be used to produce a continuous flow of

electrons in a cathode ray tube. When the cathode is connected to the
anode by an extra high tension (EHT) voltage supply, a narrow beam of
fast electrons will move to the anode. The beam of electrons moving
from the cathode to the anode is called cathode rays. Thus, Cathode
ray is the beam of electrons moving from the cathode to the anode in a
cathode ray tube.

Properties of Cathode Rays

86
Properties of cathode rays

1. They are negatively charged.

2. They travel in straight lines in field free space

3. They are deflected by electric and magnetic field.

4. They posses energy

5. They posses momentum

6. They cause fluorescence

The properties of cathode rays can be studied using apparatus such as

the maltese cross tube and cathode ray deflection tube.

Maltese cross tube

The maltese cross tube has a glass bulb and a hot cathode and an
anode enclosed in it. The anode has a hole in the centre so that
electrons can pass through it and shoot across the vacuum. In the
middle of the bulb is a second anode in the shape of a Maltese cross.
At the end of the tube, there is a fluorescent screen.

87
The streams of electrons which leave the cathode and shoot across the
vacuum are called cathode rays. The edges of the shadow of the
Maltese cross on the screen are sharp. This is because the electrons
are travelling in straight lines. Invisible cathode rays travelling across
the tube, cast a shadow of the cross on the screen. When electrons
strike the screen, the fluorescent screen will glow and light is emitted.

The beam of electrons can be moved by a magnetic field.

Deflection tube

The properties of a beam of electrons in an electric field can be

investigated using a deflection tube as shown above. The cathode is
connected to about 6 V AC power supply (AC: Alternating current). The
electron gun produces a narrow beam of electrons.

The vertical screen is coated with fluorescent material which will glow
when electrons strike it. It can show the path of the beam. There are
two horizontal metal plates one above the other. When a voltage is
applied across the metal plates the electron beam will be deflected
towards the positive plate.

Understanding Semiconductor diodes

Understanding Semiconductor diodes

1. Conductors are materials which allow current to flow through them easily. This is
because conductors have free electrons which can drift between their atoms.

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2. Insulators are materials which do not conduct electrical current.
3. Semiconductor is a material whose resistance is between those of good conductors and
those of good insulators.
Doping
1. The conductivity of a semiconductor can be increased by adding a small amount of
certain substances (impurities).
2. DOPING is the process of adding a small amount of impurities into the crystalline
lattice of semiconductors.

Semiconductors

1. There are 2 types of semiconductors: p-type and n-type.

2. p-type semiconductor:
i. the holes (positive charge) are the majority carriers.
ii. The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms because they accept any free electrons to
fill the holes.
iii. E.g. boron, indium and gallium.
3. n-type semiconductor:
i. the free electrons (negative charge) are the majority carriers.
ii. The pentavalent atoms are called donor atoms because they supply free electrons.

Semiconductor Diodes

Semiconductor Diodes

1. A semiconductor diode is called the p-n junction diode.

2. it consists of a p-type semiconductor in contact with n-type semiconductor.
3. Regions of P-type is called ANODE.
4. Regions of N-type is called CATHODE.
5. A p-type material meets an n-type material across a bounding region called the
depletion layer (p-n junction).
6. In order for current to flow through the diode, the voltage applied across the diode
must exceed the junction voltage.
7. Junction voltage is the potential difference that is caused by the movement of the holes
and free electron.

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FUNCTION OF DIODES

Diode as rectifiers

1. A diode is said to be in a forward-biased arrangement if it only allow the current to

flow from the anode to cathode. It is acting as a VALVE
2. A diode can CONVERT alternating current into direct current. This is known as
RECTIFICATION. Therefore a diode can act as a RECTIFIER.
3. A RECTIFIER is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC), a process known as rectification. RECTIFIERS have many uses including
as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals
4. There are TWO ways to convert an alternating current into a direct current.
a. Half-wave rectification
b. Full-wave rectification

Half-wave rectification

1. The current can only flow in the forward direction through the diode.
2. The process of rectification using a diode which ALLOWS CURRENT TO FLOW IN
THE HALF-CYCLE is known as half wave rectification

Half Wave Rectification

Full-wave rectification

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1. The arrangement of diode in Full-wave rectification is called a bridge rectifier.
2. The process of rectification using four diodes to allow current to flow in a complete
cycle and in the same direction is called full-wave rectification.
3. A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant
polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both
polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient.

Full Wave Rectification

Smoothing

1. The output from a rectifier can be SMOOTHED by connecting a CAPACITOR across

the load.
2. During the forward peaks (positive half-cycles), the capacitor is charged up. Energy is
stored in the capacitor.
3. In between the forward peaks (negative half-cycles), the capacitor releases its charge
(discharge). It discharges partly through the load. The energy stored in the capacitor acts
as a reservoir and maintains the potential difference across the load.
4. A capacitor with greater capacitance produces a smoother current. This is because the
capacitor can store more charge.

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REFERENCES

1. http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/rockpart.html

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket

3. http://www.wonderwhizkids.com/index.php/satellites

4. http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_(artificial)

5. M W Anyakaoha New School Physics, Africana Fep Publishers 4th Edition

6. Best O Level Revision notes. GCE Study Buddy, Google.comsite/urbangeek class

7. GCE O Level Physics (Pure), www.scribd.com/collections

8. Wikipedia-The free encyclopedia, www.wikipedia.org/

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