Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 17

UNIT II. SIMPLE STRAIN

Overview
In the previous unit, our main concern is the strength of the material which revolves
around the relation of stresses, areas, and loads. For this unit, we will deal with other
important field in strength of materials such as changing in shape or deformation that
accompany a loading.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this unit, I am able to:

1. Understand the concept of material in stress-strain diagram.
2. Calculate deformation on axial and shearing forces.
3. Use poisson’s ratio for calculating deformation in uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial
stresses.
4. Solve problems involving statically indeterminate members.
5. Solve deformation and stresses involving temperature change.
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 18

Lesson Proper

Introduction
In the previous unit, our main concern is the strength of the material which revolves
around the relation of stresses, areas, and loads. For this unit, we will deal with other
important field in strength of materials such as changing in shape or deformation that
accompany a loading. In particular, we shall learn know how to apply the geometric relations
between elastic deformation that, in combination with other conditions of equilibrium and
the relations between loads and deformations, will enable us to solve statically indeterminate
problems.
Stress-Strain Diagram
The strength of a material is not the only criterion that must be considered in
designing structures. The stiffness of a material is frequently of equal importance. To a lesser
degree, mechanical properties such as hardness, toughness, and ductility determine the
selection of a material. These properties are determined by making tests on the materials and
comparing results with established standards.

Working Stress
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 19

The working stress, also called the allowable stress, is the maximum safe stress a
material may carry. In design, the working stress σw should be limited to values not
exceeding the proportional limit so as not to invalidate the stress relation of Hooke’s law on
which all subsequent theory is based. However, since the proportional limit is difficult to
determine accurately it is customary to base the working stress on either the yield point or
ultimate strength, divided by the suitable number N, called the factor of safety.

𝛔 𝛔
𝛔𝐰 = 𝐍𝐲𝐩 𝛔𝐰 = 𝐍𝐮𝐥
𝐲𝐩 𝐮𝐥

Strain

To obtain the unit deformation or strain ε, we divide the elongation δ by the length
L in which it was measured, thereby obtaining,

𝛅
𝛆=
𝐋
where: ε = Strain (mm/mm, in/in)
δ = Elongation (mm, in)
L = Length (mm, in)
The strain computed above measures only the average value of strain. The correct expression
for strain at any position is,

dδ
ε=
dL
Where dδ is the differential elongation of the differential length dL. However, under certain
condition the strain may be assumed constant, and its value computed from the first equation.
These are the following conditions:

1. The specimen must be of constant cross section.

2. The material must be homogenous.
3. The load must be axial, that is, produce uniform stress.

Hooke’s Law: Axial and Shearing Deformations

Taking in consideration of the straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram, the

slope of that line is the ratio of stress to strain. It is called the modulus of elasticity E.

𝛔
𝐄=
𝛆
Which is usually written in the form

𝛔 = 𝐄𝛆
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 20

where: E = Modulus of Elasticity (MPa, psi)

ε = Strain (mm/mm, in/in)
σ = stress (MPa, psi)

From the above equation, substituting the σ by P/A and replacing ε by δ/L, we can
obtain,
P δ
= E( )
A L

𝐏𝐋
𝛅=
𝐀𝐄
where: δ = Elongation or Deformation (mm, in)
P = Applied Load or Force (N, lb)
L = Length (mm, in)
A = Cross-sectional Area (mm2, in2)
E = Modulus of Elasticity (MPa, psi)

*Note: The modulus of elasticity for steel in S.I. is approximately equal to 200 x 109 Pa (200
GPa) and 29 x 106 psi (29,000 ksi) for English.

The equation above is subject to all restrictions previously discussed in connection

with the equations it combines. For convenience, let us state these restrictions:

1. The load must be axial.

2. The bar must have a constant cross section and be homogenous.
3. The stress must not exceed the proportional limit.

Shearing forces also cause a shearing deformation, but with an important difference.
An element subject to tension undergoes an increase in length; an element subject to shear
does not change the length of its sides, but it undergoes a change in shape from a rectangle to
a parallelogram as shown in the figure below.

The average shearing strain is found by dividing δs by L. In the figure above, this
defines as tan γ = δs/L. However, since the angle γ is very small, tan γ = γ and we can obtain
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 21

𝛿𝑠
γ=
L
The relation between shearing stress and shearing strain, assuming Hooke’s law
apply to shear is,

τ = Gγ
Combining the relation between the shearing deformation and applied shearing
forces is expressed by:

V δs
= G( )
As L

𝐕𝐋
𝛅𝐬 =
𝐀𝐬 𝐆
where: δs = Shearing Deformation (mm, in)
V = Applied Shearing Load or Force (N, lb)
L = Length (mm, in)
As = Cross-sectional Area (mm2, in2)
G = Modulus of Rigidity (MPa, psi)

Example:

1. A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended
vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass
of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 x 103 MPa, calculate the total elongation.

Solution:

First, calculate the total weight of the bar and solve for its
deformation.

W = ρgV

W = ρgAL
kg m 1m
W = 7850 (9.81 s2 ) (300 mm2 )(1000 mm)2(150 m)
m3

W = 3465.38 N
PL
δW = AE
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 22

(3465.38 N)(75,000 mm)

δW =
(300 mm2 ) (200 x 103 MPa)

δW = 4.33 mm

Calculating the deformation that causes by the applied load.

PL
δL = AE

(20,000 N)(150,000 mm)

δL =
(300 mm2) (200 x 103 MPa)

δL = 50 mm

Solving for the total deformation.

δT = δW + δL

δT = 4.33 mm + 50 mm

𝛅𝐓 = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟑𝟑 𝐦𝐦
2. An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries axial loads applied at the
positions shown in the figure. Calculate the total change in length of the bar with E = 10 x 10 6
psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

Solution:

Solving for the axial forces acting on each section

 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 23

P1 = 6000 lb tension
P2 = 7000 lb − 6000 lb = 1000 lb compression
P3 = 6000 lb + 5000 lb − 7000 lb = 4000 lb tension

Solving for the total deformation

δT = δ1 − δ2 + δ3
P1 L1 P2 L2 P3 L3
δT = − +
AE AE AE

P1 L1 + P2 L2 + P3L3
δT = AE
in
[(6000 N)(3 ft) − (1000 N)(5 ft) + (4000 N)(4 ft)](12 )
ft
δT = (0.5 in2 ) (10 x 106 psi)
𝛅𝐓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟗𝟔 𝐢𝐧

Poisson’s Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations

Another type of deformation is the change in transverse dimensions accompanying

axial tension or compression. Experiments show that if a bar is lengthened by axial tension,
there is a reduction in the transverse dimension. Siméon D. Poisson showed in 1811 that the
ratio of the unit deformation or strains in these directions is constant for stresses within the
proportional limit.
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 24

𝛆𝐲 𝛆𝐳
𝛎=− =−
𝛆𝐱 𝛆𝐱
where: ν = poisson’s ratio
εx = strain in x direction
εy = strain in y direction
εz = strain in z direction
Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law of uniaxial stress to the case of
biaxial stress. Thus, if an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stress in the x and y
directions, the strain in the x direction due to the tensile stress σx is σx/E. Simultaneously,
the tensile stress σy will produce lateral contraction in the x direction of the amount νσy/E,
therefore the resultant unit deformation or strain in the x direction will be,

𝛔𝐱 𝛔𝐲
𝛆𝐱 = −𝛎
𝐄 𝐄
Similarly, the total strain in the y direction is

𝛔𝐲 𝛔𝐱
𝛆𝐲 = −𝛎
𝐄 𝐄
For Triaxial Tensile Stresses:

𝟏
𝛆𝐱 = [𝛔 − 𝛎(𝛔𝐲 + 𝛔𝐳 )]
𝐄 𝐱
𝟏
𝛆𝐲 = [𝛔 − 𝛎(𝛔𝐳 + 𝛔𝐱 )]
𝐄 𝐲
𝟏
𝛆𝐳 = [𝛔 − 𝛎(𝛔𝐱 + 𝛔𝐲 )]
𝐄 𝐳
An important relation among the constants E, G, and ν for a given material is
expressed by:
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 25

𝐄 = 𝟐𝐆(𝟏 + 𝛎)
where: ν = poisson’s ratio
E = modulus of elasticity (Gpa, ksi)
G = modulus of rigidity (Gpa, ksi)

Example:

1. Calculate the modulus of rigidity of steel having a modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa and a
poisson’s ratio of 0.25.

Solution:

E = 2G(1 + ν)
E
G = 2(1+ν)

200 Gpa
G = 2(1+0.25)

𝐆 = 𝟖𝟎 𝐆𝐏𝐚

2. Calculate the change in diameter of a circular steel rod axially loaded in compression where
the diameter is 5 cm and axial strain of -0.0025 with poisson’s ratio of 0.28.

Solution:

Solving for the lateral strain.

lateral strain
ν=− axial strain
ε
ν = − εy
x
εy = −εx ν

εy = −(−0.0025)(0.28)

εy = 0.0007
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 26

Solving for the change in diameter using the lateral strain

ΔD = Dεy
ΔD = 5 cm(0.0007)
𝚫𝐃 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓 𝐜𝐦

3. A rectangular steel block is 3 inches long in the x direction, 2 inches long in the y direction,
and 4 inches long in the z direction. The block is subjected to a triaxial loading of three
uniformly distributed forces as follows: 48 kips tension in the x direction, 60 kips
compression in the y direction, and 54 kips tension in the z direction. If ν = 0.30 and E = 29 ×
106 psi, determine the single uniformly distributed load in the x direction that would produce
the same deformation in the y direction as the original loading.

Solution:

Solving for the Triaxial Tensile Stresses considering the

compression stresses are negative.

P 48 kips
σx = A x = 2(4)in2 = 6 ksi tension
yz

P 60 kips
σy = A y = 3(4)in2 = 5 ksi compression
xz

P 54 kips
σz = A z = 3(2)in2 = 9 ksi tension
xy

Solving for the strain

1
εy = E [σy − ν(σz + σx )]
1
εy = [−5 ksi − 0.30(9 ksi + 6 ksi)]
29 x 103 ksi

εy = −3.276 x 10−4

Solving for the equivalent single force in the x-direction:

εy
ν=−
εx
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 27

−νεx = εy
σx
−ν = εy
E

σ
−0.3 29 x 10x3 ksi = −3.276 x 10−4

σx = 31.668 ksi
P
σx = A x
yz
Px = σx Ayz
Px = 31.668 ksi[2(4)in2 ]
𝐏𝐱 = 𝟐𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝟒𝟒 𝐤𝐢𝐩𝐬
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 28

Statically Indeterminate Members

There are certain combinations of axially loaded members in which the equations of
static equilibrium are not sufficient for a solution, these are called statically indeterminate
members. The cases are so varied that they can best be described by sample problems
illustrating the following general principles:

1. To a free-body diagram of the structure, or a part of it, apply the equations of static
equilibrium.
2. If there are more unknowns than independent equations of equilibrium, obtain additional
equations from the geometric relations between the elastic deformations produced by the
loads. To define these relations clearly, you will find it helpful to draw a sketch that
exaggerates the magnitudes of the elastic deformations.

Example:

1. A steel bar 50 mm in diameter and 2 m long is surrounded by a shell of a cast iron 5 mm

thick. Compute the load that will compress the combined bar a total of 0.8 mm in the length
of 2 m. For steel, E = 200 GPa, and for cast iron, E = 100 GPa.

Solution:

PL
δ = AE

δ = δCI = δst = 0.8 mm

Solving for the load capacity for Cast Iron and Steel

PCI L
δCI = 2
π(DCI −Dst 2 )
[ ] (ECI)
4

PCI (2000 mm)

0.8 mm = π(602 −502 )mm2
[ 4
] (100 x 103 MPa)

PCI = 34,557.52 N

Pst L
δst = πDst2 )
[ 4
] (Est )

Pst(2000 mm)
0.8 mm = π(50mm)2)
[ ] (200 x 103 MPa)
4
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 29

Pst = 157,079.63 N

Solving for the total load capacity

PT = PCI + Pst
PT = 34,557.52 N + 157,079.63 N
𝐏𝐓 = 𝟏𝟗𝟏, 𝟔𝟑𝟕. 𝟏𝟓 𝐍

2. A rigid block of mass M is supported by three symmetrically spaced rods as shown in the
figure. Each copper rod has an area of 900 mm 2; E = 120 GPa; and the allowable stress is 70
MPa. The steel rod has an area of 1200 mm 2; E = 200 GPa; and the allowable stress is 140
MPa. Determine the largest mass M which can be supported.

Solution:

δco = δst

σL σL
( E )co = ( E )st

σco (160 mm) σst (240 mm)

=
120,000 MPa 200,000 MPa

σco = 0.9σst
When σst = 140 MPa
σco = 0.9(140 MPa)
σco = 126 MPa > 70 MPa, copper rod will break

When σco = 70 MPa

10
σst = 9
σco
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 30

10
σst = (70 MPa)
9

σst = 77.78 MPa < 140 MPa, steel rod can sustain the stress

Use:
σst = 77.78 MPa
σco = 70 MPa
Solving for the total mass that can be sustain

W = 2Pco + Pst
W = 2(σco Aco) + (σst Ast )
W = 2[(70 MPa)(900mm2 )] + [(77.78 MPa)(1200mm2 )]
W = 219,336 N
W
m= g

219,336 N
m= m
9.81 2
𝑠
𝐦 = 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟓𝟖. 𝟒 𝐤𝐠

3. The rigid platform in the figure has negligible mass and rests on two steel bars, each 250
mm long. The center bar is aluminum and 249.9 mm long. Compute the stress in the
aluminum bar after the center load P = 400 kN has been applied. For each steel bar, the area
is 1200 mm2 and E = 200 GPa. For the aluminum bar, the area is 2400 mm 2 and E = 70 GPa.

Solution:

δst = δal + 0.10 mm

σL σL
( E )st = ( E )al + 0.10 mm
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 31

σst(250 mm) σal (249.9 mm)

= + 0.10 mm
200,000 MPa 70,000 MPa

σst = 2.856σal + 80 MPa

Solving for the axial stress in the aluminum

400,000 N = 2Pst + Pal

400,000 N = 2(σst Ast ) + (σal Aal )

400,000 N = 2[(2.856σal + 80 MPa)(1200mm2 )] + (σal 2400mm2 )

400,000 N = 6854.4mm2 σal + 192,000 N + 2400mm2 σal

𝛔𝐚𝐥 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟖 𝐌𝐏𝐚

4. A horizontal bar of negligible mass, hinged at A in the figure below and assumed rigid, is
supported by a bronze rod (length = 2.0 m, area = 300 mm 2, E = 83 Gpa, and a proportional
limit of 140 MPa) and a steel rod (length = 1.0 m, area = 600 mm 2, E = 200 Gpa, and a
proportional limit of 240 MPa). Calculate the stress in each rod.

Solution:

ΣMA = 0
50 kN (2.4) = 0.6 Pst + 1.6 Pbr

δst δbr
0.6
= 1.6

1 PL 1 PL
( )st = ( )br
0.6 AE 1.6 AE
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 32

1 Pst(1 m) 1 P
br (2 m)
( ) = 1.6 ((300 mm 2 )(83 GPa))
0.6 (600 mm2)(200 GPa)

Pst = 3.614 Pbr

Solving for the force in steel and bronze

50 kN (2.4) = 0.6 Pst + 1.6 Pbr

50 kN (2.4) = 0.6 (3.614 Pbr ) + 1.6 Pbr
Pbr = 31.84 kN

Pst = 3.614 Pbr

Pst = 3.614 (31.84 kN)

Pst = 115.07 kN
Solving for the stresses in both rods

P
σst = Ast
st

115,070 N
σst = 600 mm2

𝛔𝐬𝐭 = 𝟏𝟗𝟏. 𝟕𝟖 𝐌𝐏𝐚

P
σbr = Abr
br

31,840 N
σbr = 300 mm2

𝛔𝐛𝐫 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔. 𝟏𝟑 𝐌𝐏𝐚

 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 33

Thermal Stresses

Changes in temperature cause bodies to expand or contract. The amount of the linear
deformation, δT, being expressed by the relation

𝛅𝐓 = 𝛂𝐋𝚫𝐓
where: δT = thermal deformation (mm, in)
α = coefficient of thermal expansion [m/(m℃), in/(in℉)]
L = original length (mm, in)
ΔT = change in temperature (℃, ℉)

If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, as by the use of expansion

joints, no load or stress will be induced in the structure. But in some cases, it may not be
feasible to permit these temperature deformations; the result is that internal forces are
created that resist them. The stresses caused by these internal forces are called thermal
stresses.

𝛔𝐓 = 𝛂𝐄𝚫𝐓
where: σT = thermal stress (MPa, psi)
α = coefficient of thermal expansion [m/(m℃), in/(in℉)]
E = modulus of elasticity (Mpa, psi)
ΔT = change in temperature (℃, ℉)

Example:

1. Steel railroad reels 10 m long are laid with a clearance of 3 mm at a temperature of 15°C.
At what temperature will the rails just touch? What stress would be induced in the rails at
that temperature if there were no initial clearance? Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200
GPa.

Solution:

Solve for the temperature that

will cause a 3 mm
deformation.

δT = αLΔT
10−6m
3 mm = [11.7 x m·°C ](10,000 mm)(Tf − 15°C)

𝐓𝐟 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟔𝟒°𝐂
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 34

Solving for the thermal stress that will produce if there is no clearance for deformation.

σT = αEΔT
10−6m
σT = [11.7 x ](200 GPa)(40.64°C − 15°C)
m·°C

𝛔𝐓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝐆𝐏𝐚 = 𝟔𝟎 𝐌𝐏𝐚

2. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in 2 is stretched between two fixed points.
The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will
the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in/(in·°F) and E = 29 × 106 psi.

Solution:

δ = δT + δst
σL PL
= αLΔT + AE
E
P
σ = αEΔT + A

10−6in 1200 lb
σ = [6.5 x ](29 x 106 psi)(70°F) + 0.25 in2
in·°F

𝛔 = 𝟏𝟕, 𝟗𝟗𝟓 𝐩𝐬𝐢

Solving for the temperature that causes zero stress.

δT = δst
PL
αLΔT = AE
P
αΔT = AE

10−6in 1200 lb
[6.5 x ](Tf − 70°F) = 0.25 in2(29 x 106psi)
in·°F

𝐓𝐟 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟒𝟔°𝐅
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 35

References

Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Andrew Pytel and Ferdinand L. Singer

https://mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/mechanics-and-
strength-of-materials
 Mechanics of Deformable Bodies 36

Assessing Learning

Activity 2

Name: ____________________________________________ Score: ___________________

Course/Year/Section: __________________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Research, solve, and compile at least 10 problems in unit 2