Philosophy
Defining Philosophy
Philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom, truth, and knowledge.
The word "philosophy" means 'love of wisdom' in Greek.
Philosophy involves thinking about deep, fundamental questions concerning the nature of the
universe, the limits of human knowledge, values, and the meaning of life.
Philosophical questions are broader and/or more fundamental than questions in other fields.
Philosophical questions can't be straightforwardly investigated through purely empirical
means.
The main method of academic philosophy is constructing and evaluating arguments using
conceptual, intellectual, or a priori (non-empirical) content.
Branches of Philosophy
Logic: Studies good and bad arguments and reasoning, and formal, symbolic languages.
Metaphysics: Studies what sorts of entities exist, what the world is made of, and how objects
or events cause or explain each other.
Epistemology: Studies knowledge, evidence, and justified belief.
Values: Studies morality, politics, and art.
The Point of Philosophy
To discover truth.
To learn how to better live our lives.
To understand our own views, including their strengths and weaknesses.
To examine our lives and be more conscious of our choices and their implications.
To learn how to better think and reason.
Definition of Philosophy (Revisited)
A largely (but not exclusively) non-empirical inquiry that attempts to identify and answer
fundamental questions about the world, including about what’s valuable and disvaluable.
Salient Features of Philosophy
Philosophy is a science: It is systematic and follows certain steps or procedures.
It employs Natural Light of Reason: Philosophical investigation does not use laboratory
instruments or supernatural approaches; it uses natural thinking capacity.
Philosophy has an inclination to Study All Things.
Philosophy employs First Cause or Highest Principle.
The Highest Principles
Principle of Identity: Everything is what it is.
Principle of Non-Contradiction: It is impossible for a particular thing to be and not to be at the
same time and in the same respect.
Principle of Excluded Middle: Everything must either be or not be; there is no middle ground.
Principle of Sufficient Reason: There is sufficient reason for the being and existence of
everything; nothing exists without any reason at all.
Branches of Philosophy (Revisited)
Metaphysics: Investigates unreal entities in terms of the real world experienced through our
senses.
Plato's view: Our experience with the real world is not real; reality is how we perceive the
world.
Examples: shadows on a wall (Allegory of the Cave), appearance of a round table from
different angles, differing perceptions of beauty, a tree in different seasons.
Ethics: Deals with the evaluation of human actions and the nature of moral virtue.
Concerns: right vs. wrong, evil vs. good.
Examples: honesty in exams, bribery in government, animal rights, social media and
privacy, gender equality in the workplace, medical ethics (euthanasia).
Socrates: Knowledge is not merely theoretical but also practical.
Epistemology: Concerns itself with the nature, sources, limitations, and validity of knowledge.
Questions: How do we know what we know? How do we distinguish true from what is not
true?
Methods:
Induction (Empiricism): Forming knowledge by investigating particulars to arrive at
general ideas.
Deduction (Rationalism): Employing generally accepted ideas to arrive at specific
ideas.
Pragmatism: Value in use is the real test of truth and meaning.
Logic: Serves as a tool to guide arguments or discourses so as to keep them valid and true.
Aristotle: Truth exists when there is agreement between knowledge and reality.
Examples: syllogisms, assessing reasoning about rain, identifying logical fallacies.
Aesthetics: Concerns itself with the notion of beauty.
Explains matters regarding culture and arts.
Examples: architecture and urban design, fashion and clothing.
Approaches in Doing Philosophy
Reductionist: Breaking down a complex issue into smaller, more manageable parts to
understand it better. Focuses on the properties of each part.
Holistic: Understanding a certain subject as a whole, reconnecting each part to convey the
ultimate truth. Emphasis is on the relationship between the parts.
Reductionism vs. Holism
Reductionism:
Introduced by René Descartes, who likened the world to a machine.
Meaning is found in the parts which compose the object.
The whole is equal to the sum of its parts.
Holism:
The idea that something can be more than the sum of its parts.
Summed up by Aristotle in his Metaphysics: “The whole is more than the sum of its parts."
The properties of the parts contribute to the understanding of the whole.
Examples of Using Reductionism and Holism
Reductionism:
Evaluating a dish based on individual ingredients.
Underestimating the importance of daily attendance at school.
Holism:
Understanding the concept of freedom without biases.
Being open-minded to all possible realities.
Human Person as Embodied Spirit
Plato:
Two worlds: the world of ideas and the world of senses.
The body and soul are separable.
The soul is limited by the body.
The body is always limited, full of imperfections and flaws.
A good life is a life ruled by reason.
Comparison of a person to a state:
Ruler (Head) - Rational, Wisdom
Soldiers (Chest) - Spirited, Courage
Workers (Stomach) - Appetite, Temperance
René Descartes:
Widened the gap between body and soul.
Knowledge based on senses can be deceiving.
The process of doubting is indubitable.
Cogito ergo sum: I think, therefore I am.
Mind-Body Dualism: Mental phenomena are non-physical.
Freedom of the Human Will
Aristotle:
Thinking is volitional.
The will is meaningless apart from the intellect.
The intellect guides the will in making choices.
Choices are a result of one's reasoning.
St. Thomas Aquinas: Fourfold classification of law:
Eternal law: "The mind of God."
Natural law: Good should be sought after, and evil should be avoided.
Human law: Directed towards the common good and promotion of virtue.
Divine law: Laws or rules believed to originate from a transcendent source.
