Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Chapter 2&3
Derivatives and Application of derivatives

Tangent Line:
Definition The tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at the point 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎))is the line through with slope
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑚 = lim 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Example 1 Find an equation of the tangent line to the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 at the point(1,1) .
If we write = 𝑎 + ℎ , then ℎ = 𝑥 − 𝑎 . Then h approaches 0 if and only if x approaches a. Therefore, an
equivalent way of stating the definition of the derivative, as we saw in finding tangent lines:
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim 𝑥−𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

The tangent line to y=f(x) at (a, f(a)) is the line through (a, f(a)) whose slope is equal to f’(a), then the
derivative of f at a is defined as:
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Example 2: Find the derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 9 at the number 𝑎.

Definitions of Derivative
Definition 1: The derivative of a function 𝒇at a point a , denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) , is given by:
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Definition 2: The derivative of a function 𝒇at a variable x, denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) , is given by:

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(ℎ)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

Given any number x for which this limit exists, we assign to x the number𝑓 ′ (𝑥). So we can regard as a 1
new function, called the derivative of𝒇.
Example 3 Use the definitions of derivatives find the derivative of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1, State the
domain of 𝑓 ′ .
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥+ℎ−1+√𝑥−1 √𝑥+ℎ−1−√𝑥−1 √𝑥+ℎ−1+√𝑥−1

Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
.
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 √𝑥+ℎ−1+√𝑥−1
(𝑥+ℎ−1)−(𝑥−1) 1 1 1
= lim ℎ(√𝑥+ℎ−1+ = lim = =2
ℎ→0 √𝑥−1) ℎ→0 √𝑥+ℎ−1+√𝑥−1 √𝑥−1+√𝑥−1 √𝑥−1

We see that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exists if𝑥 > 1 , so the domain of 𝑓 ′ is(1, ∞).
Other Notations
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to indicate that the independent variable is 𝑥 and the dependent variable is y, then some
common alternative notations for the derivative are as follows:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)

If we want to indicate the value of a derivative 𝑑⁄𝑑𝑥 in Leibniz notation at a specific number, we use the
notation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
|
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎
𝑜𝑟 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑎

which is a synonym for𝑓 ′ (𝑎).

Definition A function f is said to be differentiable at a if 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) exists. It is differentiable on an open

interval (𝒂, 𝒃)[or (𝑎, ∞) or (−∞, 𝑎)or (−∞, ∞) ] if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.

EXAMPLE 4 Where is the function𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| differentiable?

SOLUTION If 𝑥 > 0, then

|𝑥+ℎ|−|𝑥| (𝑥+ℎ)−𝑥 ℎ
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
= lim ℎ = lim 1 = 1
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ→0

and so 𝑓 is differentiable for any 𝑥 > 0.

Similarly, for 𝑥 < 0 we have |𝑥| = −𝑥. Then
|𝑥+ℎ|−|𝑥| −(𝑥+ℎ)−(−𝑥) −ℎ
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim = lim = lim (−1) = −1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

and so 𝑓 is differentiable for any 𝑥 < 0.

𝑓 ′ (0) does not exist. (Why?)

Theorem : If 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑎, then 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑎.( The converse is not true)

Example 5 : 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|

Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

Constant Functions 2
𝒅
Derivative of a Constant Function (𝒄) =𝟎
𝒅𝒙
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Power Functions
The Power Rule: If n is any real number, then
𝑑
(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

EXAMPLE 6
(a) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 , then𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 . (b) If 𝑦 = 𝑥 1000 ,then 𝑦 ′ = 1000𝑥 999
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
(c) If 𝑦 = 𝑡 4 , then 𝑑𝑡
= 4𝑡 3 . (d) 𝑑𝑟 (𝑟 3 ) = 3𝑟 2 .
1 𝑑𝑦 2 3
(𝑒) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2
⟹ 𝑑𝑥
= − 𝑥3 (f) 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 exercise

The Constant Multiple Rule. If c is a constant and is a differentiable function, then

𝑑 𝑑
[𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

EXAMPLE 7
𝑑 𝑑
(a) (3𝑥 4 ) = 3 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 4) = 3(4𝑥 3 ) = 12𝑥 3 .
𝑑𝑥

The Sum/Difference Rule If f and g are both differentiable, then

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
EXAMPLE 8 : 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 8 + 12𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 + 10𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 + 5)

=8𝑥 7 + 60𝑥 4 − 16𝑥 3 + 30𝑥 2 − 6

The Product Rule If f and g are both differentiable, then
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑔(𝑥)) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥))
𝑑𝑥

EXAMPLE 9
3⁄
Find the derivative of𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1)(10𝑥 2)

The Quotient Rule If f and g are both differentiable, then

𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) (𝑔(𝑥))−𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥(𝑓(𝑥))
𝑑𝑥
[
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
] = [𝑔(𝑥)]2
,

Provided that 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.

3
𝑥2
EXAMPLE 10 : Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 +1
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Exponential Functions
The Derivative of the exponential function𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 :
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑎
𝑑
Example 11 : 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 𝑙𝑛2.

Definition of the Number e

𝑒 ℎ −1
e i s the number such that lim =1
ℎ→0 ℎ

Note: e ≈2.71828

Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

𝑑
(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

EXAMPLE 12 If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑥, find 𝑓 ′ .

Derivatives of a Logarithmic Function
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥
(log 𝑎 𝑥) = 𝑥 ln 𝑎 and 𝑑𝑥 (ln 𝑥) = 𝑥

EXAMPLE 13 Differentiate 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 3 + 1).

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Example 14 Use definitions of derivatives show that the derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥

𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥
EXAMPLE 15 Differentiate 𝑓(𝑥) = .
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒙(𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙−𝟏)
Solution: 𝒇′ (𝒙) = (𝟏+𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙)𝟐

The Chain Rule

The Chain Rule If f and 𝑔 are both differentiable and 𝐹 = 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is the composite function f and 𝑔 where
(𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) , then 𝐹 is differentiable, denoted by 𝐹 ′ is defined as:
4
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥)
In Leibniz notation, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) are both differentiable functions, then
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

EXAMPLE 16 : Find 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) if 𝐹(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 1.

SOLUTION
We expressed 𝐹 as 𝐹(𝑋) = (𝑓𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓(𝑢) = √𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1. Since
1 −1⁄ 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑢) = 𝑢 2 = and 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
2 2√𝑢
1 𝑥
Then 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥) = . 2𝑥 =
2√𝑥 2 +1 √𝑥 2 +1

The Power Rule Combined with the Chain Rule

If 𝑛 is any real number and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) is differentiable, then
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
(𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Alternatively, 𝑑𝑥
[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝑛[𝑔(𝑥)]𝑛−1 . 𝑔′ (𝑥)

EXAMPLE 17 : Differentiate 𝑦 = (𝑥 3 − 1)100 .

Implicit Differentiation
The functions that we have met so far can be described by expressing one variable explicitly in terms of
another variable—for example,
𝑦 = √𝑥 3 + 1 or 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
Or, in general, = 𝑓(𝑥) . Some functions are defined implicitly by a relation between 𝑥and 𝑦 such as
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 or 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 6𝑥𝑦

Implicit differentiation consists of differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥 and then
solving the resulting equation for 𝑦′.
EXAMPLE 18
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25, then find .
𝑑𝑥

Solution
Differentiate both sides of the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 :
𝑑 𝑑
( 𝑥2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 𝑑𝑥 (25)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑥 2 ) + (𝑦 2 ) =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Since (𝑦 2 ) = (𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 5
Thus 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
= −𝑦

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Arcsine Function:
Recall the definition of the arcsine function:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 ⇒ sin 𝑦 = 𝑥, where − 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2

Differentiating sin 𝑦 = 𝑥 implicitly with respect to x, we obtain

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
cos 𝑦 =1 𝑜𝑟 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦
Now cos 𝑦 ≥ 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 −𝜋⁄2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 𝜋⁄2 , 𝑠𝑜

cos 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1
Thus = =
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦 √1−𝑥 2

𝑑 1
(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
(𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙) = (𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
(𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙) = − (𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙) =
𝒅𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒙√𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
(𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙) = (𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 𝒙) = −
𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
1
EXAMPLE 19 Differentiate (a) 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 and (b)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛√𝑥 .

Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑
(a) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)−1 = −(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)−2 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)
1
=−
(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 √1 − 𝑥 2
(b) Exercise

Higher Derivatives
If 𝑓 is a differentiable function, then its derivative 𝑓′ is also a function, so 𝑓′ may have a derivative of its
own, denoted by (𝑓 ′ )′ = 𝑓′′ . This new function 𝑓′′ is called the second derivative of 𝑓 because it is the
derivative of 𝑓 ′ .Using Leibniz notation; we write the second derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑥 2

Another notation is 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝐷 2 𝑓(𝑥). 6

′′′ ′′
The third derivative 𝒇′′′is the derivative of the second derivative: 𝑓 = (𝑓 )′.
𝑑 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦
𝑦 ′′′ = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑𝑥 2 ) = 𝑑𝑥 3 = 𝐷 3 𝑓(𝑥)
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

The process can be continued. The fourth derivative 𝑓′′′′ is usually denoted by 𝑓 (4). In general, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ
derivative of 𝑓 is denoted by 𝑓 (𝑛) and is obtained𝑓 from by differentiating 𝑛 times. If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), then we
write
𝑑𝑛𝑦
𝑦 (𝑛) = 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑛 = 𝐷 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥)

EXAMPLE 20
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 , then find 𝑓′′(𝑥).
Hyperbolic Functions
Definition of the Hyperbolic Functions
𝒆𝒙 −𝒆−𝒙 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉 𝒙 =
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙
𝒆𝒙 +𝒆−𝒙 𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙

Hyperbolic Identities

sinh(  x)   sinh x cosh(  x)  cosh x

cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x
sinh( x  y )  sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

cosh( x  y )  cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y

EXAMPLE 21 Prove (a) cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1 (b) 1  tanh 2 x  sec h 2 x
Solution
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 +2+𝑒 −2𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 +2+𝑒 −2𝑥 4
(a) 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 = ( 2
) −( 2
) = 4
− 4
=4=1

(b) Exercise

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

𝒅 𝒅 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙) = ( )= = cosh 𝑥
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 2 2
We list the differentiation formula for the hyperbolic functions in the following Table.
𝒅 𝒅
(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙 (𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉 𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
(𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙 (𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒙) = −𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
(𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒉 𝒙) = 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉𝟐 𝒙 (𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒙) = −𝒄𝒔𝒄𝒉𝟐 𝒙 7
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑑 𝑑 sinh √𝑥
Example 22 𝑑𝑥
(cosh √𝑥) = sinh √𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 = 2√𝑥
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 ⟺ sin ℎ𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ−1 𝑥 ⇔ cosh 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≥ 0
𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 ⟺ tanh 𝑦 = 𝑥

Inverse hyperbolic functions can be expressed in terms of logarithms.

In particular, we have:
cosh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1) xR
sinh 1 x  ln( x  x 2  1) x 1
1 1 x
tanh 1 x  ln( ) 1  x  1
2 1 x
EXAMPLE 23 Show that 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1).
Solution Let 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥.Then
𝑒 𝑦 −𝑒 −𝑦
𝑥 = sinh 𝑦 = 2

So 𝑒 𝑦 − 2𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑦 = 0
Or, multiplying by 𝑒 𝑦 ,
𝑒 2𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0
(𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥(𝑒 𝑦 ) − 1 = 0
2𝑥±√4𝑥 2 +4
𝑒𝑦 = 2
= 𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 + 1

Note that 𝑒 𝑦 > 0 , but 𝑥 − √𝑥 2 + 1 < 0. Thus, the minus sign is inadmissible and we have
𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1
Therefore 𝑦 = ln(𝑒 𝑦 ) = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
d 1 d 1
(sinh 1 x)  (csc h 1 x)  
dx 1 x2 dx x x2 1
d 1 d 1
(cosh 1 x)  (sec h 1 x)  
dx x2 1 dx x 1 x2
d 1 d 1
(tanh 1 x)  (coth 1 x)  
dx 1 x2 dx 1 x2
𝑑 1
Exercise 24 : Prove that 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 𝑥) = .
√1+𝑥 2
8
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Applications of Differentiation

9
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

Maximum and Minimum Values

Definition A function 𝑓 has an absolute maximum (or global maximum) at 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in
𝐷, where 𝐷 is the domain of 𝑓 . The number 𝑓(𝑐) is called the maximum value of 𝑓on 𝐷. Similarly,𝑓has
an absolute minimum at 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)for all 𝑥 in 𝐷 and the number 𝑓(𝑐) is called the minimum
value of 𝑓on 𝐷. Themaximum and minimum values of𝑓 are called the extreme values of 𝑓.
Figure 1 shows the graph of a function 𝑓 with absolute maximum at 𝑑 and absolute minimum at 𝑎. Note
that(𝑑, 𝑓(𝑑)) is the highest point on the graph and(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is the lowestpoint.

Definition A function 𝑓has a local maximum (or relative maximum) at 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥)when x is near
c. [This means 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) that for all 𝑥 in some open interval containing c.] Similarly,𝑓 has a local
minimum at 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) when 𝑥is near c.
EXAMPLE 1 The function 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 takes on its (local and absolute) maximum value of 1 infinitely
many times, sincecos 2𝑛𝜋 = 1 for any integer𝑛 and−1 ≤ cos 𝑥 ≤ 1 forall𝑥. Likewise,cos(2𝑛 + 1) 𝜋 =
−1 is its minimumvalue, where𝑛 is any integer.
EXAMPLE 2 If𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , then𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(0) because𝑥 2 ≥ 0 for all. Therefore,𝑓(0) = 0is the absolute
(and local) minimum value of𝑓. This corresponds to the fact that theorigin is the lowest point on the
parabola= 𝑥 2 . However, there is no highest point on the parabola and so this function has no maximum
value.

10
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

The Extreme Value Theorem If 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] , then 𝑓attains an absolute
maximum value 𝑓(𝑐) and an absolute minimum value 𝑓(𝑑) at some numbers 𝑐 and 𝑑 in [𝑎, 𝑏].
The Extreme Value Theorem is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figures 6 and 7 show that a function need not possess extreme values if either hypothesis (continuity or
closed interval) is omitted from the Extreme Value Theorem.

Fermat’s Theorem If 𝑓 has a local maximum or minimum at 𝑐, and if 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)exists, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.

Definition A critical number of a function 𝑓 is a number c in the domain of 𝑓such that either 𝑓 ′ (0) = 0
or 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)does not exist.
3⁄
EXAMPLE 7 Find the critical numbers of𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 (4 − 𝑥).
SOLUTION The Product Rule gives
3 −2⁄ 3⁄ 3(4−𝑥) 3⁄
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5 𝑥 5 (4 − 𝑥) + 𝑥 5 (−1) = 2 −𝑥 5
5𝑥 ⁄5
3(4−𝑥)−5𝑥 12−8𝑥
= 2 = 2
5𝑥 ⁄5 5𝑥 ⁄5
3⁄ 8⁄
[The same result could be obtained by first writing(𝑥) = 4𝑥 5 −𝑥 5 .] Therefore,𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 𝑖𝑓 12 − 11
3 3
8𝑥 = 0 , that is𝑥 = 2
, and𝑓 ′ (𝑥) does not exist when𝑥 = 0 . Thus, thecritical numbers are2 and 0.

If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, then c is a critical number of f.

 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

To find an absolute maximum or minimum of a continuous function on a closed interval:

The Closed Interval Method To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous
function 𝑓 on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] :
1. Find the values of 𝑓 at the critical numbers of 𝑓 in (𝑎, 𝑏).
2. Find the values of 𝑓at the endpoints of the interval.
3. The largest of the values from Steps 1 and 2 is the absolute maximum value; the smallest of these
values is the absolute minimum value
EXAMPLE 8 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1 −1⁄ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4
2
1
SOLUTION Since 𝑓 is continuous on [− 2 , 4] , we can use the Closed Interval Method:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 3𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exists for all 𝑥, the only critical numbers of 𝑓occur when 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 , that is,𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = 2
1
.Notice that each of these critical numbers lies in the interval (− 2 , 4).

The values of𝑓 at these critical numbers are

𝑓(0) = 1 𝑓(2) = −3
The values of𝑓 at the endpoints of the interval are
1 1
𝑓 (− 2) = 8 𝑓(4) = 17

Comparing these four numbers, we see that the absolute maximum value is𝑓(4) = 17 and the absolute
minimum value is(2) = −3 .
Note that in this example the absolute maximum occurs at an endpoint, whereas the absolute minimum
occurs at a critical number.
The Mean Value Theorem
To arrive at the Mean Value Theorem we first need the following result.
Rolle’s Theorem Let 𝑓 be a function that satisfies the following three hypotheses:
1. 𝒇is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
2. 𝒇 is differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
3. 𝒇(𝒂) = 𝒇(𝒃)
Then there is a number 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0.
Figure 1 shows the graphs of four such functions. In each case it appears that there is at least one
point(𝑐, 𝑓(𝑐)) on the graph where the tangent is horizontaland therefore𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0. Thus, Rolle’s theorem 12
is plausible.
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

EXAMPLE Prove that the equation 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0has exactly one real root.
SOLUTION First we use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that a root exists.
Let 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1 . Then 𝑓(0) = −1 < 0and 𝑓(1) = 1 > 0. Since 𝑓 is a polynomial, it is
continuous, so the Intermediate Value Theorem states that there is a number 𝑐between 0 and 1 such that
𝑓 (𝑐) = 0. Thus, the given equation has a root.
To show that the equation has no other real root, we use Rolle’s Theorem and argue by
contradiction. Suppose that it had two roots 𝑎 and 𝑏. Then 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 = 𝑓(𝑏) and, since 𝑓is a polynomial,
it is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏) and continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] . Thus, by Rolle’s Theorem, there is a number 𝑐
between 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 . But
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 1 ≥ 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥
(since 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ) so𝑓 ′ (𝑥) can never be 0. This gives a contradiction. Therefore, the equation can’t have two
real roots.
The Mean Value Theorem Let 𝑓be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:
1. 𝒇is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
2. 𝒇 is differentiable on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
Then there is a number𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎

or, equivalently,
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(𝑏 − 𝑎)
EXAMPLE To illustrate the Mean Value Theorem with a specific function, let’s consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 −
𝑥, 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 2. Since f is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable for all, so it is certainly
continuous on [0,2] anddifferentiable on(0,2). Therefore, bythe Mean Value Theorem, there is a number𝑐
in(0,2) such that
𝑓(2) − 𝑓(0) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)(2 − 0)
Now𝑓(2) = 6, 𝑓(0) = 0 , and𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1 , so this equation becomes
6 = (3𝑐 2 − 1)2 = 6𝑐 2 − 2 13
4
Which gives𝑐 2 = , that is, 𝑐 = ± 2⁄√3 . But𝑐 must lie in(0,2) , so 𝑐 = 2⁄√3.
3
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

What Derivatives Tell About the Shape of a Graph

What Does 𝒇′ Say about 𝒇?
Increasing/Decreasing Test
(a) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is increasing on that interval.
(b) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 on an interval, then 𝑓 is decreasing on that interval.
EXAMPLE 1 Find where the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 + 5 is increasing and where it is
decreasing.
SOLUTION 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 = 12𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
To use the I/D Test we have to know where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 and where 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0. This depends on the signs
of the three factors of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) , namely, 12𝑥 ,𝑥 − 2 , and 𝑥 + 1. We divide the real line into intervals whose
endpoints are the critical numbers −1,0 , and 2and arrange our work in a chart. A plus sign indicates that
the given expression is positive, and a minus sign indicates that it is negative. The last column of the chart
gives the conclusion based on the I/D Test. For instance,𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0for 0 < 𝑥 < 2 , so f is decreasing on
(0, 2). (It would also be true to say that f is decreasing on the closed interval [0,2] .)
Interval 12𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓
𝑥 < −1 − − − − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 (−∞, −1)
−1 < 𝑥 < 0 − − + + 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 (−1,0)
0<𝑥<2 + − + − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 (0,2)
𝑥>2 + + + + 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 (2, ∞)

The First Derivative Test Suppose that 𝑐 is a critical number of a continuous function 𝑓.
(a) If 𝑓 ′ changes from positive to negative at 𝑐 , then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑐.
(b) If 𝑓 ′ changes from negative to positive at 𝑐, then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.
(c) If 𝑓 ′ does not change sign at 𝑐 (for example, if 𝑓 ′ is positive on both sides of c or negative on both
sides), then 𝑓 has no local maximum or minimum at 𝑐.
It is easy to remember the First Derivative Test by visualizing diagrams such as those in Figure 3.

14

EXAMPLE 2 Find the local minimum and maximum values of the function fin Example 1 above.
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

SOLUTION From the chart in the solution to Example 1 we see that𝑓 ′ (𝑥) changes fromnegative to
positive at -1, so𝑓(−1) = 0 is a local minimum value by the First DerivativeTest. Similarly,𝑓 ′ changes
from negative to positive at 2, so 𝑓(2) = −27is also alocal minimum value. As previously noted,𝑓(0) =
5 is a local maximum value because𝑓 ′ (𝑥)changes from positive to negative at 0.
What Does 𝒇′′ Say about 𝒇?
Definition If the graph of 𝑓 lies above all of its tangents on an interval 𝐼, then it is called concave
upward on 𝐼. If the graph of 𝑓 lies below all of its tangents on I, it is called concave downward on 𝐼.
Figure 7 shows the graph of a function that is concave upward (abbreviated CU) on the intervals
(𝑏, 𝑐),(𝑑, 𝑒), and(𝑒, 𝑝) and concave downward (CD) on the intervals(𝑎, 𝑏),(𝑐, 𝑑),and(𝑝, 𝑞).

Concavity Test
(a) If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 for all 𝑥 in 𝐼 , then the graph of 𝑓 is concave upward on 𝐼.
(b) If 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 for all 𝑥in , then the graph of 𝑓 is concave downward on 𝐼.

Definition A point 𝑃 on a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)is called an inflection point if 𝑓 is continuous there and the
curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave
upward at 𝑃.
Another application of the second derivative is the following test for maximum andminimum values. It is
aconsequence of the Concavity Test.
The Second Derivative Test Suppose 𝑓 ′′ is continuous near 𝑐.
(a) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) > 0, then 𝑓 has a local minimum at 𝑐.
(b) If 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) < 0, then 𝑓 has a local maximum at 𝑐.
EXAMPLE 6 Discuss the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 with respect to concavity, points of inflection, and local 15
maxima and minima. Use this information to sketch the curve.
SOLUTION If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3, then
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 3)
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 = 12𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
To find the critical numbers we set𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 and obtain𝑥 = 0and𝑥 = 3. To use theSecond Derivative
Test we evaluate𝑓 ′′ at these critical numbers:
𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0 𝑓 ′′ (3) = 36 > 0
Since𝑓 ′ (3) = 0and 𝑓 ′′ (3) > 0,𝑓(3) = −27 is a local minimum. Since𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0 , theSecond Derivative
Test gives no information about the critical number 0. But since𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0for 𝑥 < 0 and also for0 < 𝑥 <
3, the FirstDerivative Test tells us that𝑓 doesnot have a local maximum or minimum at 0. [In fact, the
expression for𝑓 ′ (𝑥)shows thatf decreases to the left of 3 and increases to the right of 3.]
Since 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 when 𝑥 = 0or 2 , we divide the real line into intervals with these numbers as endpoints
and complete the following chart.
Interval 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥(𝑥 − 2) concavity
(−∞, 0) + Upward
(0,2) − Downward
(2, ∞) + Upward

The point(0,0) is an inflection point since the curve changes from concave upward toconcave downward
there. Also(2, −16) is an inflection point since the curve changesfrom concave downward to concave
upward there.
Using the local minimum, the intervals of concavity, and the inflection points, we sketch the curve in
Figure 11.

Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule

Suppose we are trying to analyze the behavior of the function
ln 𝑥
𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑥−1

Although 𝐹 is not defined when = 1 , we need to know how 𝐹 behaves near 1. In particular, we would
like to know the value of the limit
𝑙𝑛𝑥
lim 16
𝑥→1 𝑥−1
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

In computing this limit we can’t apply Law of the limit of a quotient, because the limit of the denominator
is 0. Infact, although the limit in the abovefunction exists, its value is not obvious because both numerator
0
anddenominatorapproach 0 and0 is not defined.

In general, if we have a limit of the form

𝑓(𝑥)
lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)

where both𝑓(𝑥) → 0 and𝑔(𝑥) → 0 as𝑥 → 0 , then this limit may or may not exist and iscalled an
𝟎
indeterminate form of type𝟎.

L’Hospital’s Rule Suppose𝑓 and𝑔 are differentiable and 𝑔′ (𝑥) ≠ 0near𝑎 (exceptpossibly at ). Suppose
that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

or that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ±∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ±∞

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
0 ∞
(In other words, we have an indeterminate form of type0or∞.) Then
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′ (𝑥)
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

if the limit on the right side exists (or is∞ or−∞).

NOTE L’Hospital’s Rule is also valid for one-sided limits and for limits at infinity or negative infinity;
that is, “𝑥 → 𝑎 ” can be replaced by any of the symbols → 𝑎+ ,𝑥 → 𝑎− ,𝑥 → ∞,or𝑥 → −∞.
𝑙𝑛𝑥
EXAMPLE 1Findlim .
𝑥→1 𝑥−1

SOLUTION Since
lim ln 𝑥 = ln 1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim (𝑥 − 1) = 0
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

we can apply l’Hospital’s Rule:

𝑑
𝑙𝑛𝑥 (ln 𝑥) 1⁄
𝑥
lim 𝑥−1 = lim 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 (𝑥−1) 𝑥→1 1
𝑑𝑥

1
= lim = 1
𝑥→1 𝑥
𝑒𝑥
EXAMPLE 2 Calculate lim .
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2

SOLUTION We have lim 𝑒 𝑥 = ∞and lim 𝑥 2 = ∞, so l’Hospital’s Rule gives

𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
𝑑
𝑒𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
lim = lim 𝑑 = lim
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ (𝑥 2 ) 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Since𝑒 𝑥 → ∞ and2𝑥 → ∞ as𝑥 → ∞ , the limit on the right side is also indeterminate, but a second
17
application of l’Hospital’s Rule gives
𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
lim = lim = lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 2 𝑥→∞ 2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2

Indeterminate Products
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 andlim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ (or−∞), then it isn’t clear what the value oflim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) , if any, will
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

be. There is a struggle between 𝑓 and𝑔. If𝑓 wins, the answerwill be0 ; if𝑔 wins, the answer will be∞
(or−∞ ). Or there may be a compromise wherethe answer is a finite nonzero number. This kind of limit is
called an indeterminate formof type𝟎. ∞. We can deal with it by writing the product 𝑓𝑔 as a quotient:
𝑓 𝑔
𝑓𝑔 = 1 or 𝑓𝑔 = 1
⁄𝑔 ⁄𝑓

0 ∞
This converts the given limit into an indeterminate form of type0 or∞ so that we canuse l’Hospital’s Rule.

EXAMPLE Evaluate lim+ 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥.

𝑥→0

SOLUTION The given limit is indeterminate because, as → 0+, the first factor 𝑓(𝑥)approaches 0 while
the second factor (ln 𝑥) approaches −∞. Writing 𝑥 = 1⁄(1⁄𝑥 ), we have1⁄𝑥 → ∞ as𝑥 → 0+ , so
l’Hospital’s Rule gives
ln 𝑥 1⁄𝑥
lim+ 𝑥𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = lim+ = lim+ ⁄𝑥 2
= lim+(−𝑥) = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 ⁄𝑥
1 𝑥→0 −1 𝑥→0

Indeterminate Differences
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞ , then the limit
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)]

𝑥→𝑎

is called an indeterminate form of type∞ − ∞.

To find out the limit, we try to convert the difference into a quotient (for instance, by using a common
denominator, or rationalization, or factoring out a common factor) so that we have an indeterminate form
0 ∞
of type or .
0 ∞

EXAMPLE Compute lim

𝜋
(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥) .
𝑥→( )−
2
𝜋
SOLUTION First notice that sec 𝑥 → ∞ and tan 𝑥 → ∞as → ( 2 )− , so the limit is indeterminate.Here we
use a common denominator:
1 sin 𝑥
lim (sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥) = lim ( − cos 𝑥)
𝑥→(
𝜋
)− 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− cos 𝑥
2

1−sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥
= lim = lim =0
𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− cos 𝑥 𝑥→(𝜋⁄2)− − sin 𝑥

Note that the use of l’Hospital’s Rule is justified because1 − sin 𝑥 → 0 andcos 𝑥 → 0as→ (𝜋⁄2)− .
Indeterminate Powers
Several indeterminate forms arise from the limit
lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
18
1.𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎 type00
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

2.𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝟎 type∞0

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

3. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒈(𝒙) = ±∞ type1∞

𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

Each of these three cases can be treated either by taking the natural logarithm:
Let 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥) , then ln 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥)
or by writing the function as an exponential:
[𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥)𝑙𝑛𝑓(𝑥) .
EXAMPLE 8 Calculate lim+(1 + sin 4𝑥)cot 𝑥 .
𝑥→0

SOLUTION First notice that as 𝑥 → 0+ , we have 1 + sin 4𝑥 → 1 and cot 𝑥 → ∞ , so thegiven limit is
indeterminate. Let
𝑦 = (1 + sin 4𝑥)cot 𝑥
Then ln 𝑦 = ln[(1 + sin 4𝑥)cot 𝑥 ] = cot 𝑥𝑙𝑛(1 + sin 4𝑥)
sol’Hospital’s Rule gives
4 cos 4𝑥
ln(1+sin 4𝑥) 1+sin 4𝑥
lim+ ln 𝑦 = lim+ = lim+ =4
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 tan 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

So far we have computed the limit of lny, but what we want is the limit of y. To find this we use the fact
that :
𝑦 = 𝑒 ln 𝑦 :
lim (1 + sin 4𝑥)cot 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑦 = lim+ 𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑒 4
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

Curve Sketching
Guidelines for Sketching a Curve
The following checklist is intended as a guide to sketching a curve𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) by hand. Notevery item is
relevant to every function. (For instance, a given curve might not have anasymptote or possess
symmetry.) But the guidelines provide all the information you needto make a sketch that displays the
most important aspects of the function.
A. Domain It’s often useful to start by determining the domain𝐷of𝑓, that is, the set of valuesof 𝑥 for
which 𝑓(𝑥)is defined.
B. Intercepts
C. Symmetry
(i) If𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all𝑥in𝐷,the function is an even function and the curve is symmetric about the
y-axis.
(ii) If 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)for all𝑥in, then𝑓 is an odd function and the curve is symmetric about the origin.
iii) If 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in D, where 𝑝 is a positive constant, then𝑓 is calleda periodic function
and the smallest such number is called the period. For instance, 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 has period 2𝜋. 19
D. Asymptotes
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

(i) Horizontal Asymptotes. if either lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿or lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→−∞

asymptote of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). If it turns out that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞(−∞) , then we do not have
𝑥→∞

anasymptoteto the right.

(ii) Vertical Asymptotes. The line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a verticalasymptote if at least one of the following
statements is true:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑥→𝑎 −

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞

𝑥→𝑎 + 𝑥→𝑎 −

(For rational functions you can locate the vertical asymptotes by equating the denominator to 0 after
canceling any common factors. But for other functions this method does not apply.)
(iii) Oblique Asymptotes. Some curves have asymptotes that are oblique, that is, neither horizontal nor
vertical. If
lim [𝑓(𝑥) − (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏)] = 0
𝑥→∞

then the line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 is called an oblique/slant asymptote. For rational functions, slant
asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator.
In such a case the equation of the oblique asymptote can be found by long division.
E. Intervals of Increase or Decrease Use the I/D Test. Compute 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) and find the intervalson
which𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is positive (𝑓 is increasing) and the intervals on which 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)is negative (𝑓 is decreasing).
F. Local Maximum and Minimum Values
G. Concavity and Points of Inflection Compute𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) and use the Concavity Test.
H. Sketch the Curve Using the information in items A–G, draw the graph. Sketch the asymptotes
as dashed lines.
2𝑥 2
EXAMPLE 1 Use the guidelines to sketch the curve 𝑦 = .
𝑥 2 −1

A. The domain is
{𝑥|𝑥 2 − 1 ≠ 0} = {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ ±1} = (−∞, −1)⋃(−1,1)⋃(1, ∞)
B. The 𝑥- and 𝑦-intercepts are both 0.
C. Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) , the function𝑓 is even. The curve is symmetric about the y-axis.
𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟐
D. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟐
𝒙→±∞ 𝒙𝟐 −𝟏 𝒙→±∞ 𝟏−𝟏⁄𝒙𝟐

Therefore, the line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

Since the denominator is 0 when = ±1 , we compute the following limits:
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
lim+ 𝑥 2 −1 = ∞ lim− 𝑥 2 −1 = −∞
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 20
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2
lim = −∞ lim =∞
𝑥→1+ 𝑥 2 −1 𝑥→1− 𝑥 2 −1

Therefore, the lines and are vertical asymptotes.

 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

𝟒𝒙(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)−𝟐𝒙𝟐 .𝟐𝒙 −𝟒𝒙

E. 𝒇′ (𝒙) = (𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)𝟐
= (𝒙𝟐−𝟏)𝟐

Since 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 when 𝑥 < 0 (𝑥 ≠ −1) and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 when x > 0(𝑥 ≠ 1), 𝑓 is increasing
on (−∞, −1) and (−1,0) and(−1,0)and decreasing on(0,1) and(1, ∞).
F. The only critical number is 𝑥 = 0. Since𝑓 ′ changes from positive to negative at 0,𝑓(0) = 0is a
local maximum by the First Derivative Test.
−𝟒(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)−𝟐𝒙𝟐 .𝟐𝒙 −𝟒𝒙
G. 𝒇′′ (𝒙) = =
(𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 −𝟏)𝟐

Since12𝑥 2 + 4 > 0 for all , we have

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) > 0 ⇔ 𝑥 2 − 1 > 0 ⇔ |𝑥| > 1
And𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) < 0 ⇔ |𝑥| < 1 . Thus, the curve is concave upward on the intervals−∞, −1) and
1, ∞) and concave downward on(−1,1) . It has no point of inflectionsince 1 and -1 are not in the
domain of𝑓.
H. Using the information in E–G, we finish the sketch in Figure.
Other Applications of Derivatives
Rate of Change
The first interpretation/application of a derivative is rate of change. If f x represents a quantity at
any x then the derivative f a represents the instantaneous rate of change of f x at x a.
Example Suppose that the amount of water in a holding tank at t minutes is given by V t 2t2 16t
35. Determine each of the following.
(a) Is the volume of water in the tank increasing or decreasing at t 1 minute?
(b) Is the volume of water in the tank increasing or decreasing at t 5 minutes?
(c) Is the volume of water in the tank changing faster at t 1 or t 5 minutes?
(d) Is the volume of water in the tank ever not changing? If so, when?
Solution
We are going to need the rate of change of the volume to answer these questions. This means that we will
need the derivative of this function since that will give us a formula for the rate of change at any time t.
The derivative is.
𝑑𝑉
V’ t 4t –16 OR 𝑑𝑡
= 4𝑡 − 16

if the rate of change is positive then the quantity will be increasing and if the rate of change is negative
then the quantity will be decreasing.
(a) Is the volume of water in the tank increasing or decreasing at t 1minute?
In this case all that we need is the rate of change of the volume at t 1or,
21
′ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 = −12 | = −12
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=1

So, at t 1 the rate of change is negative and so the volume must be decreasing at this time.
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

(b) Is the volume of water in the tank increasing or decreasing at t 5 minutes?(exercise)

(c) Is the volume of water in the tank changing faster at t 1 or t 5 minutes?
To answer this question all that we look at is the size of the rate of change and we don’t worry about the
sign of the rate of change. All that we need to know here is that the larger the number the faster the rate of
change.
(d) Is the volume of water in the tank ever not changing? If so, when?
The volume will not be changing if it has a rate of change of zero. In order to have a rate of change of
zero this means that the derivative must be zero. So, to answer this question we will then need to solve
𝑑𝑉
V‘ t 0 OR 𝑑𝑡
=0

This is easy enough to do.

4t 16 0 t 4
So at t 4 the volume isn’t changing. Note that all this is saying is that for a brief instant thevolume
isn’t changing. It doesn’t say that at this point the volume will quit changing permanently.
Velocity
Definition If 𝑓(𝑡) is the position of a particle moving on a coordinate line, then the instantaneous velocity
of the particle at time 𝑡 is defined by
𝑑𝑣
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡

Example Suppose that the position of an object after t hours is given by,
𝑡
𝑔(𝑡) =
𝑡+1

Answer both of the following about this object.

(a) Is the object moving to the right or the left at t 10 hours?
(b) Does the object ever stop moving?
Solution
The derivative is,
1
𝑔′ (𝑡) = (𝑡+1)2

(a) Is the object moving to the right or the left at t 10 hours?

To determine if the object is moving to the right (velocity is positive) or left (velocity is negative) we
need the derivative at t 10.
1
𝑔′ (10) = 121

So the velocity at t 10 is positive and so the object is moving to the right at t 10.
(b) Does the object ever stop moving? 22
 Derivatives and Application of Derivatives

The object will stop moving if the velocity is ever zero. However, note that the only way arational
expression will ever be zero is if the numerator is zero. Since the numerator of thederivative (and hence
the speed) is a constant it can’t be zero.
Therefore, the velocity will never stop moving.
In fact, we can say a little more here. The object will always be moving to the right since the velocity is
always positive.
Acceleration
Definition If 𝑓(𝑡) is the position function of a particle moving on a coordinate line, then the
instantaneous acceleration of the particle at time 𝑡 is defined by
𝑑𝑣
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡

Or alternatively, since 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑡),

𝑑2 𝑓
𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑡 2

Example Let 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 be the position function of a particle moving along a 𝑓 − axis,where𝑓 is in
meters and 𝑡 is in seconds.Find the instantaneous acceleration 𝑎(𝑡).
𝑑𝑣
Solution 𝑎(𝑡) = = 6𝑡 − 12.
𝑑𝑡

Interpreting the sign of acceleration.Aparticle in rectilinear motion is speeding up when its velocity and
acceleration have the same sign and slowing down when they have opposite signs.

23