Module 1: Sea Instruments and Atmospheric Layers

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Learning Outcomes

Upon the successful completion of this module, you should be able to:
1.Distinguish aneroid barometer and barograph for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
2.Analyze the use of a hygrometer.
3.Discuss Stevenson's screen for measuring the relative humidity.
4.Describe the whirling psychrometer for measuring the relative atmospheric
humidity.
5.Explain the various layers of the atmosphere.
6.Discuss the various weather layers and their effects on the weather.
7.Explain the structure and physical properties of the earth’s atmosphere.
Aneroid Barometer and Barograph

The aneroid barometer is a precision instrument used to measure atmospheric

pressure. It is required to be carried by SOLAS

The atmospheric pressure in a barometer is measured in millibars or hectopascals

(1 millibar = 1 hectopascal). The earlier form of barometer used to be of mercury
type. Of late they have not been common onboard ships and have been gradually
replaced by the aneroid barometer. The word aneroid means without liquid in it.

The aneroid barometer consists of a circular metallic chamber exhausted of air and
hermetically sealed. Variations of atmospheric pressure produce changes in the
dimensions of the vacuum chamber and these changes are magnified mechanically,
optically or electrically, so that the atmospheric pressure may be read on a
convenient scale.

The majority of aneroid barometers indicate the pressure by means of a pointer

that rotates around a graduated dial. The vacuum chamber, usually called the
aneroid capsule, has to provide the force needed to move the pointer.

Precautions necessary with an aneroid barometer: The instrument should be

placed where it is not liable to sudden jerks which may alter its index correction, or
rapid changes of temperature and where the sun’s rays should not fall directly
onto it. The dial of an aneroid should be tapped gently before a reading is taken, as
the pointer is liable to stick.
Barograph
A barograph is constructed on exactly the same principle as the aneroid barometer
but records its readings by the movement of a pen over a suitable chart. This pen
arm carries a stylus or pen and pressure changes are presented as a mark on a
chart attached to a clockwork-operated drum. This pressure is recorded as a
continuous line whose height at any point represents the pressure at the time it
was recorded. This record is known as a barogram.
The barograph is not a precision instrument and should never be used as an
alternative to the barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure at fixed times,
the barograph is a valuable addition to the barometer aboard ship in providing a
continuous record of atmospheric pressure between the times at which the
barometer was read. Its advantage is that it provides a graphical record of
fluctuations of pressure, together with the times at which they occur. Its readings
give barometric tendency, which is defined as the change in the barometric
pressure over a given period.
 Corrections to Aneroid Readings
The only corrections which should be applied to an aneroid reading are those for
index error and for altitude.
 Index error: The index error is very likely in most barometers. It is in the
instrument itself, because of the vacuum chamber's elasticity. This error is bound
to change with the age of the instrument and is to be checked at regular intervals.
Most Port Meteorological Offices have a standard barometer which is available for
such comparisons. On request, this barometer can be brought onboard for
comparison. The readings of the two barometers are compared and the index error
of the shipboard barometer is thus obtained. The index error shall be displayed
clearly near the barometer and the same is applied to every observed reading. The
index error is applied as per its prefix; i.e. + or -.
 Height correction: The second correction to a barometer reading is the height
correction. Since the barometer is normally kept on the bridge, which is a certain
height from the water level, this correction is applied to get the barometric reading
at sea level. The atmospheric pressure falls at the rate of 1 millibar for every 10
meters from the sea level. Generally, the correction is calculated by dividing the
height of the instrument from sea level by 10. For example, if the height is 30m the
correction will be 3 millibars. The height correction is added to the barometer
readings.

NOTE: French scientist and philosopher René Descartes described the design of an
experiment to determine atmospheric pressure as early as 1631, but there is no
evidence that he built a working barometer at that time. Evangelista Torricelli
built the first mercury barometer around 1644. Two centuries later, in 1843, the
French scientist Lucien Vidie invented the world's first aneroid barometer.
Hygrometer and Stevenson’s Screen
A hygrometer is used to measure the quantity of water vapour present in the
atmosphere. Hygrometers are of many types.
There are hygrometers that have sensitivity related to the change in weight,
volume or transparency of substances responding to humidity. Some of them are
the Dew-point hygrometers and the psychrometer.
Mechanical Hygrometers
Electrical Hygrometers
Dew-point Hygrometers
Psychrometer
Organic substances (such as goldbeater’s skin [ox gut] and human hair) contract
and expand in response to the humidity. This principle is used in this type of
hygrometer.

The contracting and expanding of the hair element in a mechanical hygrometer

make the spring move a pointer on the dial.
Electrical Hygrometers
Dew-point Hygrometers
Psychrometer
This type of hygrometer measures the change in electrical resistance of a
semiconductor device or substance like lithium chloride, as the humidity in the
atmosphere changes.
Dew-point Hygrometers
Psychrometer
This type of hygrometer has a polished metal mirror. The metal mirror is cooled at
constant pressure and constant vapour content till the moisture in the atmosphere
begins to condense on it.

Dew point is the temperature of the metal mirror at which condensation initiates.

Dew-point Hygrometers
Psychrometer
A hygrometer consists of two thermometers (wet bulb and dry bulb). It measures
the humidity through evaporation. The enlarged end of the wet-bulb thermometer
is wrapped with a wet cloth.

When the thermometers are rotated quickly or air is blown over the bulbs, the
temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer cools compared with the dry-bulb. This
temperature difference between the wet-bulb and dry-bulb thermometers is used
to measure the humidity.

Stevenson’s Screen
The accuracy of the thermometer reading is crucial. Measurement of atmospheric
temperature has to be carried out outside the accommodation. It is, therefore,
necessary to ensure that the readings are not influenced by the surroundings, such
as direct sun, sea, exhausts from the galley etc, and radiation of heat from the
bulkhead, yet the air must be able to pass through freely. Stevenson’s Screen is
used for protecting the thermometers.

Stevenson’s Screen
 Stevenson's Screen Positioning
The Stevenson’s Screen should be positioned:
 Outdoors where ample free flow of air is available
 Where the air from over the sea flows through the screen before being influenced
by the surrounding metal
 Where it will be out of the way of crew movement
 Away from the accommodation bulkhead to avoid re-radiation of heat
 Away from air pipes
 Away from any exhaust vents
 At a height, convenient for a person to read the temperature, which is usually 1.5
metre

Whirling Psychrometer
 By using the Whirling Psychrometer, one can measure the relative humidity with a
maximum level of accuracy.
 The Whirling Psychrometer includes wet and dry bulb thermometers and a water
tank connected to the wet-bulb thermometer by a cotton sleeve.
 The temperature change in the wet-bulb thermometer depends on how quickly the
water in the cotton sleeve evaporates.
 Swing the instrument for at least 2 minutes and take the readings of both dry and
wet thermometers.
 Using the conversion table, you find the relative humidity and dew point.

Whirling Psychrometer - Procedure

 Dip the wick of the wet bulb in water and swing the psychrometer for 2 minutes.
 Record the readings. Repeat until both dry and wet thermometers readings are
consistent.
 Obtain the depression by calculating the difference between the wet-bulb
temperature and the dry bulb temperatures.
 Using the conversion table, obtain the relative humidity by finding the value where
the wet-bulb depression intersects the dry-bulb temperature.
Finding the Relative Humidity
Finding relative humidity: using the relative humidity table, enter the table with
the difference (depression of wet bulb temperature) 10° at the top. Now move
horizontally along with 24°C until the column marked 10. The intersection shows
30%. The relative humidity is 30%.
Finding the Dew Point
Finding dew point: using the dew point table is given below: If the dry bulb
temperature is 24°C and the wet bulb temperature is 14°C, enter the table with the
difference (depression of wet bulb temperature) 10° at the top. Now move
horizontally along with 24°C until the column marked 10. The intersection shows a
dew point of 6°C.
 Whirling Psychrometer - Precautions
 Wick should be clean and free of dust or any deposits.
 Do not touch the wick. Oil present on the finger would make the wick water-
resistant.
 The swinging of the Whirling Psychrometer should be carried out on the windward
side of the ship, away from the sunlight and any obstructions.
 While swinging, hold the handle of the instrument at arm’s length so that it will
not be influenced by body heat.
 Care should be taken when swinging and the swinging area shall be is free of any
obstruction.

Different dew point tables are used for the whirling psychrometer and for the
hygrometer in Stevenson’s Screen.