2.
1 Traffic engineering studies
Traffic engineering studies are used to obtain relevant empirical data, and that data must be
collected in an unbiased, objective manner to result in appropriate decisions for
improvements. The volume of vehicles, bicycles, or pedestrians is a key input to many traffic
engineering analyses. Speed is an important measure for traffic operations, because highway
users relate speed to economics, safety, time, comfort, and convenience. Analysts use the
results of intersection and driveway studies to determine what kind of traffic control
devices are
warranted and to determine intersection capacity, traffic signal timing, site development
impacts, safe speeds, driveway locations, and other important parameters. The development
of a variety of technologies and techniques will assist transportation professionals and public
officials with further refinement and future implementation. These technologies and
techniques include new, more efficient, and more accurate data collection methods, as well as
applications for real‐time data analysis and integration.
2.2 Highway capacity Analysis
2.2.1 Definitions
Maximum flow: The capacity of a road is defined as the maximum flow of traffic possible
under prevailing traffic and road conditions. The capacity is measured as the number of
passenger cars per hour.
Saturation flow: A fundamental element of the capacity calculation in particular for
junctions and road networks is the saturation flow. It is defined as the maximum rate of flow
possible in the absence of controlling factors such as the red light in the traffic signal. It can
also be considered as the potential capacity of a road section or junction under ideal
conditions.
Passenger car equivalent (E): Normally traffic does not consist of passenger cars only, and
consequently other vehicle categories are converted into ‘passenger car units’ (pcu’s) by
means of a passenger car equivalent (E). E is defined as the number of passenger cars that are
displaced by a single vehicle of a particular type under a prevailing traffic and road condition.
It is worth noting that E is not a fixed value attached to the vehicle type. It depends on two
main factors: the road condition, such as the type of road and the gradient (a heavy lorry
counts more uphill), and the traffic composition, such as the proportion of heavy vehicles or
bicycles. A lot of theoretical and experimental work has been carried out to determine E for
different vehicle categories under various road conditions.
Calculation
Method
The initial method of calculating E was presented back in 1947 by Dr. Greenshields. It is
based on measurement of headways between vehicles under saturated flow conditions. This
appears for instance when traffic waiting at a stop line starts moving when the traffic signal
turns green.
The headway of a passenger car following another passenger car is used as the basic value to
which other headways are compared.
Examples
In a recent study, Zhao has used the method to estimate E in mixed traffic with a high
proportion of bicycles. A linear regression equation is used to determine E for different
vehicle categories. In Beijing, Zhao estimated E for bicycles in mixed traffic to be 0.18. In a
pilot study in Copenhagen the corresponding factor was found to be between 0.16 and 0.29,
depending on the composition of traffic. E for buses and trucks were found to be between
1.54 and 2.21. In comparison, the city engineer of the Copenhagen Municipality uses the
factors 0.2 for bicycles and 2.0 for buses and trucks. The results indicate that the figure of 0.2
may be an adequate estimate for bicycles in most cases. In an Indonesian study, E was
determined using a linear regression equation with several dependent variables, such as the
width of the road and the speed of traffic.
E by road and carriageway type
Expressway Suburban Urban
Vehicle type dual dual single dual single
Car, taxi 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Truck 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.6 2.3
Small truck 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Large bus 1.8 2.0 2.6 2.4 3.3
Minibus 1.3 1.4 1.8 1.7 2.6
Opelet 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.7
Three-wheeled vehicles _ _ 0.8 0.8 0.9
Motorcycle 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4
Becak _ _ 0.6 0.6 0.6
Bicycle – – 0.5 0.4 0.3
In his study, Zhao concludes that Greenshields’ method of determining the headways
combined with the regression method calculation of E is applicable to developing countries.
Trials have been conducted in Bandung, Indonesia, and three different data collection
methods have been tested and compared. It is concluded that all three methods are applicable
to Third World conditions.
Traffic models
More complex problems such as the application of a traffic model will often require more
detailed analysis. In Santiago, Chile, the TRANSYT computer model to design fixed time
traffic signal plans was introduced. Before the model could be of any use, a comprehensive
study was undertaken to determine the basic parameters and to calibrate the model. The main
parameters to be analysed were E, the saturation flows and the platoon dispersion parameters,
which describe the way a queue of vehicles released from a stop line is dispersed due to
differences in acceleration performance and speed.
Means of improvement
One of the most efficient ways of improving the capacity of a road is to separate motor
vehicles from slow moving traffic such as pedestrians, bicycles and carts. In Beijing, Zhao
compared the capacity of an intersection approach with mixed traffic flow with a separate
bicycle track. Table 5.11 shows that the total capacity of the approach increases when bicycle
traffic is separated from motor traffic. These results do not only apply in cities. In rural areas,
a combined pedestrian and bicycle path along the road will improve the capacity of the road
as well as the safety conditions.
Table 5.11 Comparison of the capacity of an approach with mixed respectively separated traffic
in Beijing).
Traffic type Motor traffic Bicycles Total flow
(car units h −1 ) (bikes h −1 ) (car units h −1 )
Mixed traffic 754 4184 1507
Separated traffic 965 4320 1743
Intersections
The above considerations are primarily concerned with road sections and intersection
approaches. At intersections special problems arise due to the conflicts between different
categories of traffic. As mentioned in Section 5.2.4, large proportions of pedestrians and
cyclists may obstruct the intended flow of motorized traffic, and vice versa. The most
efficient countermeasure is to design the intersections with a large degree of channelization.
The purpose of the channelization is to separate and direct traffic streams, to provide waiting
areas for pedestrians and hence separate traffic conflicts in time and space. It is obtained by
means of separate turning lanes and waiting areas, raised traffic islands, pedestrian refuges
and carriageway markings. Even a simple pedestrian crossing will benefit from a central
island, allowing pedestrians to cross the road in two stages, and at the same time slowing
down traffic and preventing overtaking in front of the crossing.
Drivers’ task
The overall aim of a wide range of traffic engineering measures, such as channelization, is to
facilitate the drivers’ task by providing the necessary information and by reducing the
conflicts and the choices to be made. In many industrialized countries there is an increasing
recognition of the importance of designing the road, its equipment and surroundings to
support an appropriate road user behaviour. This may be considered even more important in
developing countries where the entire traffic environment including peoples’ attitude is under
development.
2.2.2 Public transport
A large share of trips is made by public transport. Consequently, a considerable improvement
in the overall transport system can be achieved by improving the conditions of the public
transport.
Priority
As is the case for non-motorized traffic, segregation of traffic streams can improve traffic
flow conditions considerably. The main means are separate bus lanes or even busways. In
addition, priority treatment of buses in signal-controlled intersections can improve travel
speed. A number of experiments with bus lanes and busways has been carried out in
developing countries by the Transport Research Laboratory in the UK.
Busways
A further step is to reserve separate streets or parts of the street as a comprehensive busway
network. A recent Research Report from TRL describes the experiences from eight busway
case studies in various parts of the world. The general conclusion is that the busways and
their facilities have improved traffic operations considerably.
Bus stops
An important issue in relation to public transport is the location and design of bus stops. The
stops must be easily accessible for the buses as well as the passengers. The latter should be
able to approach the stops without crossing traffic lanes, which often is the case with street
cars or bus lanes located in the centre of the road. They must contain waiting areas large
enough to accommodate passengers without any danger of being hit by passing vehicles.
Larger bus stations must have an easily understood information system to direct the
passengers to the appropriate platform.
A large number of studies indicates that the traditional traffic engineering calculation
methods and models are applicable in developing countries. It is, however, very important to
verify the
key parameters by updated local traffic studies. Furthermore, the success of introducing new
procedures as well as traffic schemes may heavily depend upon the ability of the traffic
engineer and his staff to understand and adapt to local.
2.3 Highway functional Classification
Functional classification is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into
classes, or systems, according to the character of service they are intended to provide.
Functional classification outlines how travel can be channelized within the network in a
logical and efficient manner by defining the part that any particular road or street should play
in serving the flow of trips through a highway network.
The bases of the functional usage of a roadway are mobility and accessibility. Travel can be
logically related to the roadway's ability to access land and the mobility through an area.
Figure
1 shows the relationship between traffic mobility and land access. Different roadway
classifications offer different levels of mobility and accessibility. For example, local facilities
emphasize the land-access function. Arterials emphasize a high level of mobility for through
movement, while, collectors offer a compromise between access and mobility.
Mobility is measured in respect to ability of traffic to pass through a defined area in a
reasonable amount of time. Common elements of mobility include:
Operating speed
Level of service
Riding comfort
Figure 1: Proportion of Service
Accessibility is measured in terms of the road system’s capability to provide
access to and
between land use activities within a defined area.
2.3.1 How Does the Department of Transport Use Functional Classification?
Functional classification are used for the purposes of, funding, design, determining the urban
network to identify the thoroughfare system, determining nationwide network for the State
Highway Needs Assessment Study, and to help establish construction priorities. Functional
class affects several factors in Department of Transport operation:
Design Horizon Year
Functional classification plays a role in determining a project road improvement’s design
horizon year date. This affects the time span over which the facility must be minimally
adequate. Secondary roads have an eleven-year design horizon after advertisement, while
other systems and selected urban secondary roads require 22-year design horizons after
advertisement.
Geometric Design Standards
Functional classification is used to determine appropriate design standards for roadways. The
AASHTO Green Book includes functional classification as a factor in selecting appropriate
design controls of a facility. Design controls affected by functional class include design speed
and the acceptable degree of congestion during peak hours.
Allocation of Transportation Funding within the Commonwealth
Functional class plays a key role in the allocations of transportation funds from the
Commonwealth to the VDOT Districts. Virginia code outlines roadways eligible for funding
based on federal functional classification and allocates transportation funding differently
based on functional class. This is the case for state primary roads (arterials) and lower
functional classifications. For example, the Commonwealth Transportation Board allocates
funding for arterials and interstates among the nine VDOT construction districts. However, in
regards to lower functional classifications, VDOT allocates money to jurisdictions based on
the number of moving-lane-miles available to peak-hour traffic and functional class.
Maintenance Payments
Maintenance payment amounts that a locality will receive, if the locality has responsibility or
assumes responsibility for road maintenance care (dollars per moving lane mile {open at
peak- periods}). The functional classification defines the amount of funding as well as the
type of
maintenance funding available for roadways. For example, maintenance payments to
jurisdictions are based on federal functional classification. Two different categories defined
by functional class, principal and minor arterial roads and collector roads and local streets
divide funding allocation. In addition to funding sources, functional class plays a role in the
frequency of VDOT maintenance inspections as well as prohibitions on vehicle parking on
certain roads to reserve through lanes for peak period use.
Development and Maintenance of Local Roads
According to federal law, development and/or maintenance of local roads are ineligible for
federal funding (per 23 USC 101(a)(5)). Responsibilities for this class of roads are private,
local and/or state government concerns. It is the responsibility of the Commonwealth to fund
maintenance and construction of any roads classified as local by the functional classification.
VDOT maintains local roads for most jurisdictions or provides funding for jurisdictions that
maintain their own roads.
Access Management
Functional class is an important part of design criteria for access management features
(spacing-frequency and/or type of access) such as interchanges, intersections, and roadside
entrance, exit and/or driveway points. For example, roads classified as principal arterial with
a speed limit between 35 and 40 mph are required to have a to have 1,320 feet between
intersections. However, a collector with the same speed limit is required to have 660 feet
between intersections.
Traffic Calming
Functional class is one of the factors of eligibility for traffic calming measures. According to
VDOT, only roads classified as collector roads and local roads are eligible for traffic calming
measures. Examples of physical traffic calming measures include speed humps, chokers, and
raised crosswalks. Any roads classified as higher than collectors are ineligible for such traffic
calming measures.
Data Recording, Reporting and Documentation
Data-record group types, such as mileage table records for selected road classes, such as for
highway performance monitoring system (HPMS). For example, urban summaries reported to
HPMS require information about travel, land area and population for roadways classified as
local. However, the urban summary report does not require data from any other functional
classification.
2.3.2 Importance of Functional Classification
The classification of roadways by their function is an important component of the Department
of roads and highways. The classification informs the relative importance of the road, and it
defines how the road is envisioned to function within the overall system of metropolitan roads
and local streets. Functional classification reflects an emphasis of how a roadway will be
treated now and in the future. The roadway of interest may not possess all the attributes nor
meet the entire criterion for its classification type today - however, current improvement
decisions should anticipate that the road will meet most of these criteria to the greatest extent
possible in the future after considering the location context of the road.
Roadway functional classification refers to the process by which roadways and streets are
grouped into classes, or systems, according to the character of the service they are intended to
provide. Basic to this process is the recognition that roads and streets are interdependent in
how they serve transportation needs, as well as the communities and neighbourhoods they
serve.
Functional Classification is a means of ensuring the proper balance between mobility and
land access.
The purpose of this categorization is to ensure that a system of roadways and streets provides
a balanced relationship between mobility and land access. Mobility is the ability to efficiently
travel along the roadway system, while land access is the ease of being able to connect to a
particular development or parcel of land.
The functional classification categories are:
• Principal Arterials
• Minor Arterials
• Collectors
• Locals
These classifications signify differing levels of accommodation for mobility and land access.
The classification is hierarchical by the amount of travel mobility provided. Principal arterials
primarily provide mobility, while local streets focus on providing land access.
Background
Functional classification affects a number of other decisions which are made concerning the
road, including:
• The proper assignment of jurisdiction responsibility of the roadway
• The nature and spacing of access connections allowed to the roadway
• The amount of right-of-way needed for the road and related elements
• What types of uses are allowed in the right-of-way
• The types of traffic controls used at intersections
• Whether or not on-street parking is allowed
• The distance for building set-backs required when developing near the roadway right-of-
way
• Design guidelines and standards which apply to any improvements on the roadway
• The accrual of needs for state aid funding
• The eligibility of the road to use other available funding sources (such as state or
federal monies)
These elements need to be looked at in the context of the location, physical setting, and
condition of the corridor (urban, suburban, ex-urban). This section documents the process of
classifying roadways, shows the criteria by road type, and illustrates how the county road
system is classified today. A mapped functional classification system is also presented that
will be used to guide planning, design and operations decisions.
Hennepin County’s functional classification system is consistent with the
classification as approved by the Metropolitan Council. The system reflects recent
revisions proposed by the county and adopted by the Metropolitan
