QUESTIONS

CONTROL AND
COORDINATION
• WHAT IS
• Control is the power of restraining
and regulation by which something
can be started, slowed down or
stopped. Co-ordination is the
working together of various agents
of the body of an organism in a
proper manner to produce an
appropriate reaction to a stimulus is
called coordination.
WHERE DOES IT TAKE
PLACE ?

• In human beings, the control and

coordination take place through
the nervous system and the
endocrine system that produce
and secrete hormones. The five
sense organs in our body, eyes,
ears, nose, tongue and skin are
called receptors and these organs
functions by receiving information
from the environment around us.
HOW DOES IT WORK?
• In human beings, the nervous
system controls the various
functions by small units called
neurons. Neurons receive the
information through sensory nerves
and transfer them through motor
nerves. Whereas, hormones
coordinate the activities and growth
of the body.
STIMULUS
• Stimulus is an event or any change in the external environment
that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue.
stimulus can be internal or external. Sense organs, such as the ear,
and sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, are sensitive to
external stimuli such as sound and touch. Stimuli is a detectable
change in the internal or external environment. That which
influences or causes a temporary increase of physiological activity
or response in the whole organism or in any of its parts. Response
to stimuli is a defining character of life i.e it is a way in which
scientists can know if an organism has life in it or not. There are
several other ways as well to know this such as cell organisation ,
metabolism etc Responses to stimuli are just one of them. Stimulus
is anything, literally anything that induces a response in your
nervous system. That could be a sudden change in temperature
that makes you feel cold. You could say here temperature was the
stimulus it just stimulated your nerve cells into prompting you that
youre cold and probably should move to some warmer place.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The nervous system has two main parts: The central nervous
system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the
spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body. human nervous
system, system that conducts stimuli from sensory receptors to the
brain and spinal cord and conducts impulses back to other parts of
the body. As with other higher vertebrates, the human nervous
system has two main parts: the central nervous system (the brain
and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (the nerves
that carry impulses to and from the central nervous system). In
humans the brain is especially large and well developed .The
nervous system includes the central nervous system (CNS) and
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is made up of the brain
and spinal cord, whereas the PNS is made up of the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems. The nervous system consists of the
brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that
connect these organs with the rest of the body
Organs of Human Nervous System
• Brain: The brain is the major nervous system of our body
controlling our actions. It receives and sends signals to and
from sensory organs. The brain comprises of three parts:
Forebrain- It helps in the overall action of control and
coordination of voluntary function and the thinking part of the
brain. Midbrain- It transmits signals from the hindbrain and
forebrain Hindbrain- Works on the control and coordination
of heart rate, blood pressure and other activities. Spinal Cord:
The spinal cord is the thick nerve located at the backbone of
the cavity area. The upper end of the spinal cord connects to
the brain and is connected to all parts of the body through
nerves and controls body functions. Nerves: It connects the
brain and the spinal cord of the body.
HUMAN BRAIN
• The brain is the most complex part of the human body. This
three-pound organ is the seat of intelligence, interpreter of the
senses, initiator of body movement, and controller of behavior.
Lying in its bony shell and washed by protective fluid, the
brain is the source of all the qualities that define our humanity.
The brain is the crown jewel of the human body. This fact
sheet is a basic introduction to the human brain. It may help
you understand how the healthy brain works, how to keep it
healthy, and what happens when the brain is diseased or
dysfunctional .The brain is like a group of experts. All the parts
of the brain work together, but each part has its own special
responsibilities. The brain can be divided into three basic units:
the forebrain, the midbrain, and the hindbrain.
FUNCTIONS OF
BRAIN
• The hindbrain includes the upper part of the spinal cord,
the brain stem, and a wrinkled ball of tissue called the
cerebellum. The hindbrain controls the body’s vital
functions such as respiration and heart rate. The
cerebellum coordinates movement and is involved in
learned rote movements. When you play the piano or hit
a tennis ball you are activating the cerebellum. The
uppermost part of the brainstem is the midbrain, which
controls some reflex actions and is part of the circuit
involved in the control of eye movements and other
voluntary movements. The forebrain is the largest and
most highly developed part of the human brain
 When people see pictures of the brain it is usually the cerebrum that
they notice. The cerebrum sits at the topmost part of the brain
and is the source of intellectual activities. It holds your memories,
allows you to plan, enables you to imagine and think. It allows
you to recognize friends, read books, and play games. The
CONTINUED cerebrum is split into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure.
Despite the split, the two cerebral hemispheres communicate
with each other through a thick tract of nerve fibers that lies at the
base of this fissure. Although the two hemispheres seem to be
mirror images of each other, they are different. For instance, the
ability to form words seems to lie primarily in the left
hemisphere, while the right hemisphere seems to control many
abstract reasoning skills. For some as-yet-unknown reason,
nearly all of the signals from the brain to the body and vice-versa
cross over on their way to and from the brain. This means that
the right cerebral hemisphere primarily controls the left side of
the body, and the left hemisphere primarily controls the right
side. When one side of the brain is damaged, the opposite side of
the body is affected. For example, a stroke in the right hemisphere
of the brain can leave the left arm and leg paralyzed.
The cerebral
cortex
• Coating the surface of the cerebrum and the
cerebellum is a vital layer of tissue the
thickness of a stack of two or three dimes. It is
called the cortex, from the Latin word for bark.
Most of the actual information processing in
the brain takes place in the cerebral cortex.
When people talk about "gray matter" in the
brain they are talking about this thin rind. The
cortex is gray because nerves in this area lack
the insulation that makes most other parts of
the brain appear to be white. The folds in the
brain add to its surface area and therefore
increase the amount of gray matter and the
quantity of information that can be processed.
MOTOR CORTEX SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
• In the rearmost portion of each • The forward parts of these
frontal lobe is a motor cortex, lobes, just behind the motor
which helps plan, control, and areas, is the somatosensory
execute voluntary movement, cortex. These areas receive
or intentional movement, like information about temperature,
moving your arm or kicking a taste, touch, and movement
ball. from the rest of the body.
• Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into sections, or lobes, each of which specializes in different
functions. To understand each lobe and its specialty we will take a tour of the cerebral hemispheres.

FRONTAL LOBE PARIETAL LOBES

• The two frontal lobes lie directly behind • When you enjoy a good meal—the
the forehead. When you plan a schedule,
imagine the future, or use reasoned
taste, aroma, and texture of the
arguments, these two lobes do much of the food—two sections behind the
work. One of the ways the frontal lobes frontal lobes called the parietal
seem to do these things is by acting as
short-term storage sites, allowing one idea
lobes are at work. Reading and
to be kept in mind while other ideas are arithmetic are also functions in the
considered. repertoire of each parietal lobe.
OCCIPITAL LOBES TEMPORAL LOBES
• As you look at the words and pictures on • The last lobes on our tour of the cerebral hemispheres are the
this page, two areas at the back of the temporal lobes, which lie in front of the visual areas and nest
under the parietal and frontal lobes. Whether you appreciate
brain are at work. These lobes, called the
symphonies or rock music, your brain responds through the
occipital lobes, process images from the activity of these lobes. At the top of each temporal lobe is an
eyes and link that information with images area responsible for receiving information from the ears. The
stored in memory. Damage to the occipital underside of each temporal lobe plays a crucial role in
lobes can cause blindness. forming and retrieving memories, including those associated
with music. Other parts of this lobe seem to integrate
memories and sensations of taste, sound, sight, and touch.
The Inner Brain
• Deep within the brain, hidden from view,
lie structures that are the gatekeepers
between the spinal cord and the cerebral
hemispheres. These structures not only
determine our emotional state, but they
also modify our perceptions and
responses depending on that state, and
allow us to initiate movements that you
make without thinking about them. Like
the lobes in the cerebral hemispheres, the
structures described below come in pairs:
each is duplicated in the opposite half of
the brain.
 The Neuron
• The cell body contains the nucleus, where most of
the molecules that the neuron needs to survive
and function are manufactured. Dendrites extend
out from the cell body like the branches of a tree
and receive messages from other nerve cells.
Signals then pass from the dendrites through the
cell body and may travel away from the cell body
down an axon to another neuron, a muscle cell, or
cells in some other organ. The neuron is usually
surrounded by many support cells. Some types of
cells wrap around the axon to form an insulating
myelin sheath. Myelin is a fatty molecule which
provides insulation for the axon and helps nerve
signals travel faster and farther. Axons may be
very short, such as those that carry signals from
one cell in the cortex to another cell less than a
hair’s width away. Or axons may be very long,
such as those that carry messages from the brain
all the way down the spinal cord.
The Synapse
• Scientists have learned a great deal about
neurons by studying the synapse—the
place where a signal passes from the
neuron to another cell. When the signal
reaches the end of the axon it stimulates
the release of tiny vesicles. These structures
release chemicals known as
neurotransmitters into the synapse. The
neurotransmitters cross the synapse and
attach to receptors on the neighborig cell.
These receptors can change the properties
of the receiving cell. If the receiving cell is
also a neuron, the signal can continue the
transmission to the next cell.
Some Key Neurotransmitters At
Work
• Neurotransmitters are chemicals that brain cells use to talk to each other.
Some neurotransmitters make cells more active (called excitatory) while
others block or dampen a cell's activity (called inhibitory). Acetylcholine is an
excitatory neurotransmitter because it generally makes cells more excitable.
It governs muscle contractions and causes glands to secrete hormones.
Alzheimer’s disease, which initially affects memory formation, is associated
with a shortage of acetylcholine. Glutamate is a major excitatory
neurotransmitter. Too much glutamate can kill or damage neurons and has
been linked to disorders including Parkinson's disease, stroke, seizures, and
increased sensitivity to pain. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is an
inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control muscle activity and is an
important part of the visual system. Drugs that increase GABA levels in the
brain are used to treat epileptic seizures and tremors in patients with
Huntington’s disease. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that constricts blood
vessels and brings on sleep. It is also involved in temperature regulation. Low
levels of serotonin may cause sleep problems and depression, while too much
serotonin can lead to seizures. Dopamine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter
involved in mood and the control of complex movements. The loss of
dopamine activity in some portions of the brain leads to the muscular rigidity
of Parkinson’s disease. Many medications used to treat behavioral disorders
work by modifying the action of dopamine in the brain.
Vertebrates have a distinct nervous system, which is divided into two
main parts: • Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS) Central Nervous System It consists of the brain and
spinal cord. Generation of sensory emotions takes place here.
Thoughts and emotions are produced, leading to the
formation of memories. It gathers information from all over
the body and syncs its activity accordingly. Apart from
sensory motions, it also controls the rate at which we breathe,
heart rate, the temperature of the body, etc. Explore more
about Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System
Everything apart from the brain and spinal cord constitutes
the PNS. It includes nerves and everything that goes down the
spinal cord. It is responsible for bringing information from all
parts of the body to the brain. The nerves in the PNS are
known as peripheral nerves, and these nerves connect our
sense organs and all other organs, blood vessels, etc., to the
CNS.
HORMONES
• Hormones are chemicals secreted by various
endocrine glands directly into the blood and
transported to the respective organs, where
they act by regulating various metabolic
processes. The organ affected by the
hormone is called the target organ. The
target cells have specific receptors to
recognize the respective hormones. There are
two types of glands present in our body.
Endocrine Glands– These glands that do not
have ducts and transport their secretions
directly to the site of action through the
blood, e.g. adrenal glands, pituitary glands,
etc. Exocrine Glands– These glands have
ducts to pass their secretions, e.g., sweat,
liver, etc.
 • The hypothalamus, about the size of a pearl, directs a multitude
of important functions. It wakes you up in the morning, and
CONTINUED gets the adrenaline flowing during a test or job interview. The
hypothalamus is also an important emotional center,
controlling the molecules that make you feel exhilarated, angry,
or unhappy. Near the hypothalamus lies the thalamus, a major
clearinghouse for information going to and from the spinal cord
and the cerebrum. An arching tract of nerve cells leads from the
hypothalamus and the thalamus to the hippocampus. This tiny
nub acts as a memory indexer—sending memories out to the
appropriate part of the cerebral hemisphere for long-term
storage and retrieving them when necessary. The basal ganglia
(not shown) are clusters of nerve cells surrounding the
thalamus. They are responsible for initiating and integrating
movements. Parkinson’s disease, which results in tremors,
rigidity, and a stiff, shuffling walk, is a disease of nerve cells that
lead into the basal ganglia.