CHAPTER ONE- SCIENCE AS A FIELD OF STUDY

1.1 DEFINITION OF SCIENCE

Science is defined as a systematic process of making enquiry about the living and non-living things in our
environment. The act of making enquiries and finding facts about a subject matter is the foundation for
science. For instance, a man wakes up in the morning and finds out that the colour of the soil in his
compound is brown. He then asks himself the question, " Why is the soil colour brown?". He continues
to collect some soil samples for testing and observation and comes up with a conclusion which is the
answer to his question. He might also discover some theories or laws along the way which will help
future students who might want to follow his scientific approach. Science is a very interesting field of
study because it creates challenges and profers solutions to such problems. Man is a very inquisitive
being. This makes man a lifelong scientist asking questions and trying to find answers to them.

1.2 USEFULNESS OF SCIENCE

Science has been put into many good uses for the benefit of man. The usefulness of science finds
application in:

1. MEDICINE: Science has contributed greatly to the manufacture of vaccines and drugs that are used
today to cure various diseases of man.

2. ENGINEERING: Ship buildings, Skyscrapers, bridges, roads, etc. have been designed and constructed
due to the knowledge acquired from science.

3. AGRICULTURE: New breeds of animals and varieties of crops including fertilizers have been developed
and these have helped to increase food production.

4. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES: Various raw materials have been combined to manufacturany

finished products commonly used by man.

5. CONSTRUCTION: Roads, railways, airports, etc have been designed and constructed as a result of the
knowledge derived from science.

6. TECHNOLOGY: Science has helped in the development of computers and the recently introduced
Artificial Intelligence (AI) that have enhanced the efficiency of mankind in their activities.

7. COMMUNICATION: Televisions, telephones, telex, fax machines etc have been developed with the aid
of science which now makes communication among countries to be possible.

8. TRANSPORTATION: Aeroplanes, ships, rockets, etc. have been built due to the knowledge of science
and these have made movement of people and goods within and across nations possible.

METHODS OF SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

The methods of scientific approach involves the sequence of making enquiries about an object or thing
under study in Science. Students of science have to learn to make clear, systematic and accurate
accounts of their scientific investigations.

These methods, therefore take the following procedures:

1. OBSERVATION: Observation in sciences is an act or instance of noticing or perceiving and the

acquisition of information from a primary source. In living beings, observation employs the senses. In
Science, observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific
instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during the scientific activity. Observations
can be qualitative, that is, the absence or presence of a property is noted and the observed
phenomenon described, or quantitative if a numerical value is attached to the observed phenomenon by
counting or measuring.

2. CLASSIFICATION: Classification is an investigative approach that involves sorting objects or events into
groups or categories. Classification is important because it allow us to better understand relationships
and connections between things. They also help scientists to communicate clearly with each other.

3. INFERENCE: An inference is a logical conclusion based on previous experiences, observations and

knowledge. It is an educated guess. Inferences can lead is to a hypothesis.

4. MEASUREMENT: This is the process of associating numbers with physical quantities and phenomena.
Measurement is fundamental to the sciences; to engineering, construction, and other technical fields;
and to almost all everyday activities. For that reason, the elements, conditions, limitations and
theoretical foundations of measurement needs to be studied.

5. IDENTIFICATION: Scientific identification means the study of artifacts, other materials, and
information derived from or relating to a cultural and historic property or properties, for purposes of
increasing knowledge about such properties or about topics of scientific research. Such study may
include destructive activities such as the gasification of samples for radiometric age determination,
where appropriate.

6. HYPOTHESIS: A hypothesis is an assumption or idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that
it can be tested to see if it might be true. In the scientific method, the hypothesis is constructed before
any applicable research has been done, apart from a basic background review. You ask a question, read
up on what has been studied before, and then form a hypothesis. A hypothesis is usually tentative; it's
an assumption or suggestion made strictly for the objective of being tested.

7. EXPERIMENT: An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or

determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into
cause- and - effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated.
Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis
of the results.
8. CONTROL OR CONCLUSION: When conducting an experiment, a control is an element that remains
unchanged or unaffected by other variables. It is used as a benchmark or a point of comparison against
which other test results are measured. For example, when a new type of medicine is tested, the group
that received the medication is called the "experimental group". The control group, however, recieves
no medicine. Conclusion on the other hand is a brief remark or paragraph that summarises our
hypothesis findings based on the experiment we ran or the final data we obtained.

9. THEORY/LAW: A theory is a well- substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can
incorporate laws, hypothesis, or facts. The theory of gravitation, for instance, explains why apples fall
from trees and astronauts float in space. Similarly, the theory of evolution explains why so many plants
and animals- some very similar and some very different- exist on Earth now and in the past, as revealed
by the fossil record. A scientific law applies to a phenomenon or occurrence that happens naturally in
the world. The incident happens without human intervention and can be seen by anyone. A scientific
law does not explain why something happens or its existence. However, it will usually refer to rules for
how nature will behave under certain conditions. These rules will often be represented as an equation.
We can deduce from the above that a scientific theory or law emerges from a scientist's conclusion from
a hypothesis that has been proven to be true over and over again. The scientist then goes ahead to
postulate certain theories and laws which will help in subsequent scientific studies.

1.4 PATTERNS OF EXPERIMENTAL REPORTS

In reporting an experiment, it is very important to use or follow laid down patterns by scientists. These
patterns include:

(a) AIM: This is to state the purpose of the experiment.

(b) APPARATUS: This stands for the materials that will be used in the experiment.

(c) METHOD: This is to describe in detail, the procedures that are required or the step-by-step set-up of
the experiment.

(d) OBSERVATION: This records what one has seen during and after the experiment has been set up.

(e) CONCLUSION: This is to draw conclusions on the outcome of the whole experiment based on the
final result and observations.

CHAPTER TWO- SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNIQUES

2.1 LABORATORY; DEFINITION AND USES

A laboratory (lab) is a specialised facility designed for scientific research, experimentation, and analysis.
It provides a controlled experiment for scientists, researchers, and students to conduct experiments,
test hypothesis, and collect data.

USES OF A LABORATORY

1. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: Labs are used to conduct experiments, collect data, and test hypothesis in
various scientific fields such as Biology, chemistry, physics and more.

2. EDUCATION: Labs are used in schools and universities to teach students scientific concepts,
techniques, and methods.

3. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT: Labs are used in industries to develop and test new products, materials,
and technologies.

4. QUALITY CONTROL: Labs are used to test and analyze products, materials, and samples to ensure
quality and safety.

5. MEDICAL RESEARCH: Labs are used to study diseases, develop new treatments, and test medications.

6. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING: Labs are used to test and analyze environmental samples, such as
water and air quality.

7. FORENSIC ANALYSIS: Labs are used in forensic science to analyze evidence and help solve crimes.

8. MATERIALS TESTING: Labs are used to test the properties and characteristics of materials, such as
strength, durability and composition.

Overall, laboratories play a crucial role in advancing scientific knowledge, developing new technologies,
and ensuring the quality and safety of products and services.

2.2 SCIENCE LABORATORIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Here are some types of Science laboratories that can be found in Nigerian secondary schools:

1. PHYSICS LABORATORY: This laboratory is used for experimental research in physics, allowing students
to conduct experiments and investigations to understand the concepts of motion, forces, energy and
other related topics.

2. CHEMISTRY LABORATORY: This laboratory is equipped with various equipment and materials for
chemistry experiments, enabling students to explore Chemical reactions, properties, and processes.

3. BIOLOGY LABORATORY: This laboratory is designed for biological experiments and investigations,
providing students with hands-on experience in exploring living organisms, cells, and ecosystems.
4. GENERAL SCIENCE LABORATORY: This laboratory is a multipurpose space for teaching and learning
various scientific concepts, often used for integrated science or combined science classes.

5. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE LABORATORY: This laboratory focuses on environmental studies to

investigate and explore ecological systems, conservation and sustainability.

2.3 SCIENCE LABORATORY MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

To ensure a safe and effective learning environment, regular care and maintenance of the science
laboratory is crucial. Here are some tasks to consider:

1. CLEANLINESS: Regularly clean and disinfect surfaces, equipment and instruments.

2. EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE: Regularly inspect, calibrate, and repair equipment to ensure accuracy
and functionality.

3. CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT: Properly store, label and dispose of chemicals, following safety guidelines
and regulations.

4. WASTE DISPOSAL: Properly dispose of hazardous and non-hazardous waste, following school and local
regulations.

5. SAFETY CHECKS: Regularly inspect the laboratory for safety hazards, ensuring that all equipment and
instruments are in good working condition.

6. INVENTORY MANAGEMENT: Keep an up to date inventory of equipment, instruments, and chemicals,

tracking usage and expiration dates.

7. PEST CONTROL: Regularly inspect for pests, such as rodents or insects, and take prompt action if
necessary.

8. VENTILATION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE: Ensure proper functioning of fume hoods, exhaust fans, and
ventilation systems.

9. EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT CHECKS: