Calculus

Vol. 1
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY Pages 2 – 16

1.1. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 2

1.2. THE LIMIT LAWS 7
1.3. CONTINUITY 13

CHAPTER 2: DERIVATIVES Pages 17 – 52

2.1 DEFINING THE DERIVATIVE 17

2.2 THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION 22
2.3 DIFFERENTIATION RULES 26
2.4 DERIVATIVES AS A RATE OF CHANGE 39
2.5 THE CHAIN RULE 42
2.6 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 46
2.7 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

CHAPTER 3: APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES Pages 53 – 80

3.1 RELATED RATES 53

3.2 MAXIMA AND MINIMA 60
3.3 THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 66
3.4 DERIVATIVES AND THE SHAPE OF A GRAPH 71

CHAPTER 4: ANTIDERIVATIVES AND INTEGRATION Pages 81 – 104

4.1 ANTIDERIVATIVES 81
4.2 THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 92
4.3 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION 96
4.4 INTEGRATION BY PARTS 100
Calculus Vol. 1 2

CHAPTER 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
INTRODUCTION

The idea of a limit is central to all of calculus. In this chapter, we describe how to find the limit of
a function at a given point. Not all functions have limits at all points, and we discuss what this
means and how we can tell if a function does or does not have a limit at a particular value. This
chapter has been created in an informal, intuitive fashion, but this is not always enough if we need
to prove a mathematical statement involving limits.

1.1 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION

The concept of a limit or limiting process, essential to the understanding of calculus, has been
around for thousands of years. In fact, early mathematicians used a limiting process to obtain better
and better approximations of areas of circles. Yet, the formal definition of a limit – as we know
and understand it today – did not appear until the late 19th century. We therefore begin our quest
to understand limits, as our mathematical ancestors did, by using an intuitive approach.

We begin our exploration of limits by looking at the graph of the

x2  4
function f ( x)  given in Figure 1.1.
x 2
This function is undefined at x = 2, but if we make this statement
and no other, we give a very incomplete picture of how each
function behaves in the vicinity of x = 2. To express the behavior
the graph in the vicinity of 2 more completely, we need to
introduce the concept of a limit.
Let’s first take a closer look at how the function behaves around
x  2 in Figure 1.1. As the values of x approach from either
side of 2, the values of y  f ( x) approach 4. Mathematically,
we say that the limit of f  x  as x approaches 2 is 4.
Symbolically, we express this limit as lim f  x   4 .
x 2

Definition
Let f  x  be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing a , with the possible
exception of a itself, and let L be a real number. If all values of the function f  x  approach the
real number L as the values of x (  a ) approach the number a, then we say that the limit of f  x 
as x approaches a is L (More succinct, as x gets closer to a , f  x  gets closer and stays close to
L ). Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f  x   L .
x a

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Calculus Vol. 1 3

Example 1.1: Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values

x 2
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
x4 x4
Solution
We use Table 1.1 to list the values of the function for the given values of x.

x 2 x 2
f  x  f  x 
x x4 x x4
3.9 0.251582342 4.1 0.248456731
3.99 0.250156446 4.01 0.249843945
3.999 0.250015627 4.001 0.249984377
3.9999 0.250001563 4.0001 0.249998438
3.99999 0.25000016 4.00001 0.24999984
x 2
Table 1.1: Table of functional values for lim
x4x4
After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 4 appear to be decreasing
toward 0.25 whereas the functional values greater than 4 appear to be increasing toward 0.25. We
x 2
conclude that lim  0.25 .
x 4 x  4

Note that for the limit of a function to exist at a point, the functional values must approach a single
real-number value at that point. If the functional values do not approach a single value, then the
limit does not exist.

Example 1.2: Evaluating a Limit that fail to exist

x 3
Evaluate lim using a table of functional values.
x 3 x  3

Solution

We use Table 1.2 to list the values of the function for the given values of x.
x 3 x 3
x f  x  x f  x 
x 3 x 3
2.9 -1 3.1 1
2.99 -1 3.01 1
2.999 -1 3.001 1
2.9999 -1 3.0001 1
2.99999 -1 3.00001 1
x 3
Table 1.2: Table of functional values for lim
x 3 x  3

After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 3 is equal to  1 , whereas the
x 3
functional values greater than 3 is equal to 1 . We conclude that lim does not exist.
x 3 x  3

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Calculus Vol. 1 4

Example 1.3: Evaluating a Limit Using a Graph

For g  x  shown in Figure 1.2, evaluate lim g  x  .

x  1

Solution: Despite the fact that g  1  4 , as the x -values

approach −1 from either side, the g  x  values approach 3.

Therefore, lim g  x   3 . Note that we can determine this

x  1

limit without even knowing the algebraic expression of the

function.
Based on Example 1.3, we make the following
observation: It is possible for the limit of a function to exist at a point, and for the function to be
defined at this point, but the limit of the function and the value of the function at the point may be
different.

One-Sided Limits

Sometimes indicating that the limit of a function fails

to exist at a point does not provide us with enough
information about the behavior of the function at that
particular point. To see this, we now look at the
x2
function g  x   given in Figure 1.3. As we
x2
pick values of x close to 2, g  x  does not approach a
single value, so the limit as x approaches 2 does not
exist – that is, lim g  x  DNE. However, this
x 2

statement alone does not give us a complete picture of

the behavior of the function around the x -value 2. To
provide a more accurate description, we introduce the
idea of a one-sided limit. For all values to the left of 2
(or the negative side of 2), g  x  = −1. Thus, as x
approaches 2 from the left, g  x  approaches −1. Mathematically, we say that the limit as x
approaches 2 from the left is −1. Symbolically, we express this idea as

lim g  x   1 .
x2 

Similarly, as x approaches 2 from the right (or from the positive side), g  x  approaches 1.
Symbolically, we express this idea as

lim g  x   1
x2 

We can now present an informal definition of one-sided limits.

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Calculus Vol. 1 5

Definition: We define two types of one-sided limits.

Limit from the left: Let f  x  be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form
( c , a ), and let L be a real number. If the values of the function f  x  approach the real number
L as the values of x (where x  a ) approach the number a , then we say that L is the limit of
f  x  as x approaches a from the left. Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f  x   L .
xa

Limit from the right: Let f  x  be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form
( a , c ), and let L be a real number. If the values of the function f  x  approach the real number
L as the values of x (where x  a ) approach the number a , then we say that L is the limit of
f  x  as x approaches a from the right. Symbolically, we express this idea as lim f  x   L .
xa

Theorem 1.1: Relating One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits

Let f  x  be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing a , with the possible
exception of a itself, and let L be a real number. Then, lim f  x   L if and only if
x a

lim f  x   L and lim f  x   L .

xa xa

Example 1.4: Evaluating One-Sided Limits

 x  1 if x2
For the function f  x    2 , evaluate each of the following limits using a table
 x  4 if x2
of functional values.
(a) lim f  x 
x2

(b) lim f  x 
x2

Solution
We can use tables of functional values again Table 1.3. Observe that for values of x less than 2,
we use f  x   x  1 and for values of x greater than 2, we use f  x   x2  4 .

x f  x  x 1 x f  x   x2  4
1.9 2.9 2.1 0.41
1.99 2.99 2.01 0.0401
1.999 2.999 2.001 0.004001
1.9999 2.9999 2.0001 0.00040001
1.99999 2.99999 2.00001 0.0000400001
 x  1 if x2
Table 1.3: Table of functional values for f  x    2
 x  4 if x2
Based on this table, we can conclude that
(a) lim f  x  = 3 and (b) lim f  x  = 0.
x2 x2

Therefore, the (two-sided) limit of f  x  does not exist at x = 2.

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Calculus Vol. 1 6

EXERCISE 1.1

1
1
1. Estimate lim x using a table of functional values.
x 1 x  1

2. Use the graph of h(x) in Figure 1.1.1 to evaluate

lim h  x  , if possible.
x  2

x2  4
3. Use a table of functional values to evaluate lim ,
x 2 x2
if possible.
sin x
4. Use a table of functional values to evaluate lim , if
x0 x
possible.
5. Use a table of functional values to estimate the following limits, if possible.
x2 1
(a) lim
x 1 x 1
x2 1
(b) lim
x 1 x 1
6. Use the graph of f  x  in Figure 1.1.2 to determine each
of the following values:
(a) lim  f  x  ; lim  f  x  ; lim f  x  ; f  4
x  4 x  4 x  4

(b) lim  f  x  ; lim  f  x  ; lim f  x  ; f  2

x  2 x  2 x  2

(c) lim f  x  ; lim f  x  ; lim f  x  ; f 1

x 1 x 1 x 1

(d) lim f  x  ; lim f  x  ; lim f  x  ; f  3

x 3 x 3 x 3

7. In the following exercises, consider the graph of the

function y  f  x  shown in Figure 1.1.3. Which of the
statements about y  f  x  are true and which are false?
Explain why a statement is false.
(a) lim f  x   0
x  10

(b) lim f  x   3
x 2

(c) lim f  x   f  8 
x  8

(d) lim f  x   5
x 6

8. In the following exercises, use the graph of the function y  f  x  shown in Figure 1.1.4 to
find the values, if possible. Estimate when necessary.

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Calculus Vol. 1 7

(a) lim  f  x 
x 2

(b) lim  f  x 
x 2

(c) lim f  x 
x 2

(d) lim f  x 
x 2

(e) lim f  x 
x 2

(f) lim f  x 
x 2

9. In the following exercises, use the graph of the function

y  f  x  shown in Figure 1.1.5 to find the values, if
possible. Estimate when necessary.
(a) lim f  x 
x 0

(b) lim f  x 
x 0

(c) lim f  x 
x 0

(d) lim f  x 
x 1

(e) lim f  x 
x 2

10. Using the graph in Figure 1.1.6, find each limit or explain
why the limit does not exist.
(a) lim f  x 
x  1

(b) lim f  x 
x 1

(c) lim f  x 
x0

(d) lim f  x 
x2

1.2 THE LIMIT LAWS

In the previous section, we evaluated limits by looking at graphs or by constructing a table of

values. In this section, we establish laws for calculating limits and learn how to apply these laws.
We begin by restating two useful limit results from the previous section. These two results,
together with the limit laws, serve as a foundation for calculating many limits.

Theorem 1.2: Basic Limit Results

For any real number a and any constant c ,
(i) lim x  a
x a

(ii) lim c  c
x a

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Calculus Vol. 1 8

Theorem 1.3: Limit Laws

Let f  x  and g  x  be defined for all x  a over some open interval containing a . Assume that
L and M are real numbers such that lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M . Let c be a constant.
x a x a

Then, each of the following statements holds:

Sum law for limits: lim  f  x   g  x    lim f  x   lim g  x   L  M .
x a x a x a

Difference law for limits: lim  f  x   g  x    lim f  x   lim g  x   L  M .

x a x a x a

Constant multiple law for limits: lim  c f  x    c  lim f  x   c  L .

x a x a

Product law for limits: lim  f  x   g  x    lim f  x   lim g  x   L  M .

x a x a x a

 f  x   xlim f  x L
a
Quotient law for limits: lim     for M  0 .
x a
 g  x  lim
 x a g  x  M

   L for every positive integer n .

n
Power law for limits: lim  f  x    lim f  x 
n n
x a x a

Root law for limits: lim n f  x   n lim f  x   n L for all L if n is odd and for L  0 if n is
x a x a

even.
Theorem 1.4: Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
Let p  x  and q  x  be polynomial functions. Let a be a real number. Then,
lim p  x   p  a 
x a

p  x p a
lim  when q  a   0 .
x a q  x q a
Example 1.5: Evaluating Limits using the limit laws
2 x 2  3x  1
Use the limit laws to evaluate lim .
x 2 x3  4
Solution
2 x 2  3x  1 2  2   3  2   1 3
2

lim   .
x3  3  2  3
3
x 2 11
Additional Limit Evaluation Techniques
f  x 0
Calculating a Limit when has the Indeterminate Form .
g  x 0

1. First, we need to make sure that our function has the appropriate form and cannot be evaluated
immediately using the limit laws.`
f  x
2. We then need to find a function that is equal to h  x   for all x  a over some interval
g  x
containing a . To do this, we may need to try one or more of the following steps:

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Calculus Vol. 1 9

 If f  x  and g  x  are polynomials, we should factor each function and cancel out any
common factors.
 If the numerator or denominator contains a difference involving a square root, we should
try multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the expression
involving the square root.
f  x
 If is a complex fraction, we begin by simplifying it.
g  x
3. Last, we apply the limit laws.
Example 1.6: Evaluating a Limit by Factoring and Canceling
x 2  3x
Evaluate lim .
x  3 2 x2  5x  3

Solution
x 2  3x
Step 1. The function f  x   is undefined for x  3 . In fact, if we substitute 3 into the
2 x2  5x  3
0
function we get , which is undefined. Factoring and canceling is a good strategy:
0
x 2  3x x  x  3
lim 2  lim
x  3 2 x  5x  3 x  3  x  3 2 x  1

x 2  3x x
Step 2. For all x  3 ,  . Therefore,
2 x  5x  3 2 x  1
2

x  x  3 x
lim  lim
x  3  x  3 2 x  1 x  3  2 x  1

Step 3. Evaluate using the limit laws:

x 3
lim  .
x  3  2 x  1 7

Example 1.7: Evaluating a Limit by Multiplying by a Conjugate

x  2 1
Evaluate lim .
x  1 x 1
Solution
x  2 1 0
Step 1. has the form at  1 . Let’s begin by multiplying by x  2  1 , the conjugate
x 1 0
of x  2  1 , on the numerator and denominator:

x  2 1 x  2 1 x  2 1
lim  lim  .
x  1 x 1 x   1 x 1 x  2 1
Step 2. We then multiply out the numerator. We don’t multiply out the denominator because we
are hoping that the ( x  1 ) in the denominator cancels out in the end:
x 1
lim .
x  1
 x  1 x  2  1 
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Calculus Vol. 1 10

Step 3. Then we cancel:

1
lim .
x  1
 x  2 1 
Step 4. Last, we apply the limit laws:
1 1
lim  .
x  1
 x  2 1  2

Example 1.8: Evaluating a Limit by Simplifying a Complex Fraction

1 1

Evaluate lim x  1 2
x 1 x 1
Solution
1 1

0
Step 1. x  1 2 has the form at 1. We simplify the algebraic fraction
x 1 0

1 1 2   x  1
 2  x  1   x  1
x 1
lim x  1 2  lim  lim  lim .
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 2  x  1 x  1 x 1 2  x  1 x  1

Step 2. Then, we cancel the common factors of  x  1 :

1
 lim .
x 1 2  x  1
Step 3. Last, we evaluate using the limit laws:
1 1
lim  .
x 1 2  x  1 4
Example 1.9: Evaluating a Two-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws

4 x  3 if x  2

For f  x    , evaluate each of the following limits:
 x  3 if x  2
2


a. lim f  x  b. lim f  x  c. lim f  x 

x2  x2  x2

Solution
a. Since f  x   4x  3 for all x  2 , replace f  x  in the limit with 4 x  3 and apply the
limit laws:
lim f  x   lim  4 x  3  5 .
x2 x2

b. Since f  x    x  3 for all x  2 , replace f  x  in the limit with  x  3 and apply the
2 2

limit laws:
lim f  x   lim  x  3  1 .
2

x 2 x 2

c. Since lim f  x   5 and lim f  x   1, we conclude that lim f  x  does not exist.
x2 x 2 x2

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Calculus Vol. 1 11

f  x
We now turn our attention to evaluating a limit of the form lim , where lim f  x   K ,
xa g  x xa

f  x K
where K  0 and lim g  x   0 . That is , has the form , K  0 at a .
xa g  x 0

K
Example 1.10: Evaluating a Limit of the Form , K  0 using the Limit Laws
0
x3
Evaluate lim .
x2 x  2x
2

Solution
1
Step 1. After substituting in x  2 , we see that this limit has the form . That is, as x
0
approaches 2 from the left, the numerator approaches −1; and the denominator approaches 0.
x 3
Consequently, the magnitude of becomes infinite. To get a better idea of what the limit
x  x  2
is, we need to factor the denominator:
x 3 x 3
lim 2  lim .
x2 x  2x x2 x  x  2

Step 2. Since x  2 is the only part of the denominator that is zero when 2 is substituted, we then
1
separate from the rest of the function:
x2
x3 1
 lim 
x2 x x2


x  3 1 1 x3 1
Step 3. lim  and lim    . Therefore, the product of and has a
x2 x 2 x  2 x2 
x x2
limit of   :
x3
lim 2   .
x2 x  2x


EXERCISE 1.2

1. In the following exercises, use direct 2. In the following exercises, use direct
substitution to evaluate each limit. substitution to show that each limit leads
0
(a) lim  4 x 2  1 to the indeterminate form . Then,
x2
0
2 x 2  3x  1 evaluate the limit.
(b) lim
x 3 5x  4 x 2  16
(a) lim
1 x4 x  4
(c) lim x2
x  0 1  sin x
(b) lim 2
x2 x  2x
2  7x
(d) lim 3 x  18
x 1 x  6
(c) lim
2
x  6 2 x  12
(e) lim e2 x x
1  h 
2
x 2 1
3x (d) lim
(f) lim ln e h 0 h
x 3

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Calculus Vol. 1 12

x  4 1 (a) lim 2 f  x  g  x 
(e) lim x 6
x  3 x3
 1 
x 1  2 (b) lim  f  x   g  x  
(f) lim x 6
 3 
x 5 x 5
g  x  1
t 9 (c) lim
(g) lim x 6 f  x
t 9 t 3
 h  x 
3
x3  1 (d) lim
(h) lim 2
x 1 x  1 x 6 2
2 x 2  3x  2 (e) lim g  x   f  x 
(i) lim x 6
1 2x 1
(f) lim  x  h  x  
x
2
x 6
1
1 (g) lim  x  1 f  x  
(j) lim x  2 x 6
x3
(h) lim  f  x   g  x   h  x  
x  3

1 1 x 6

5. In the following exercises, evaluate the
(k) lim a  h a where a is a real-
h 0 h given limits.
valued constant  x2 , x3
sin  (a) f  x   
(l) lim  x  4, x  3
   tan 
(i) lim f  x 
cot x x 3
(m) lim
x
 cos x
2
(ii) lim f  x 
x 3
3. In the following exercises, use direct
(iii) lim f  x 
substitution to show that each limit leads x 3

K  x3  1, x  0
to the indeterminate form ,K  0 . (b) g  x   
0 1, x0
Then, evaluate the limit.
(i) lim g  x 
x 2  25 x 0
(a) lim
x 5 x5 (ii) lim g  x 
x 0
x2
(b) lim (iii) lim g  x 
 x  1
2
x 1 x 0

2 x2  7 x  4  x 2  2 x  1, x2
(c) lim 2 (c) h  x   
x  2 x  x  2 3  x, x2
2 x2  7 x  4 (i) lim h  x 
(d) lim x 2
x  1 x2  x  2
(ii) lim h  x 
4. In the following exercises, assume that x 2

lim f  x   4 , lim g  x   9 , and (iii) lim h  x 

x 6 x 6 x 2

lim h  x   6 . Use these three facts and

x 6

the limit laws to evaluate each limit.

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Calculus Vol. 1 13

1.3 CONTINUITY

Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pencil without lifting the
pencil from the page. Such functions are called continuous. Other functions have points at which
a break in the graph occurs, but satisfy this property over intervals contained in their domains.
They are continuous on these intervals and are said to have a discontinuity at a point where a break
occurs.
We begin our investigation of continuity by exploring what it means for a function to have
continuity at a point. Intuitively, a function is continuous at a particular point if there is no break
in its graph at that point.
Continuity at a Point
Before we look at a formal definition of what it means for a function to be continuous at a point,
let’s consider various functions that fail to meet our intuitive notion of what it means to be
continuous at a point. We then create a list of conditions that prevent such failures.
Our first function of interest is shown in figure 1.4. We see that the graph of f  x  has a hole at
a . In fact, f  a  is undefined. At the very least, for f  x  to be continuous at a , we need the
following condition:
i. f  a  is defined.
However, as we see in figure 1.5, this condition alone is insufficient to guarantee continuity at the
point a . Although f  a  is defined, the function has a gap at a . In this example, the gap exists
because lim f  x  does not exist. We must add another condition for continuity at a —namely,
x a

ii. lim f  x  exists.

x a

However, as we see in figure 1.6, these two conditions by themselves do not guarantee continuity
at a point. The function in this figure satisfies both of our first two conditions, but is still not
continuous at a . We must add a third condition to our list:
iii. lim f  x   f  a 
x a

Figure 1.4 The function Figure 1.5 The function Figure 1.6 The function
f  x  is not continuous at f  x  is not continuous at f  x  is not continuous at
a because f a is a because lim f  x  does a because
x a
undefined. lim f  x   f  a  .
not exists. x a

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Calculus Vol. 1 14

Now we put our list of conditions together and form a definition of continuity at a point.
Definition
A function is continuous at a point a if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
i. f  a  is defined.
ii. lim f  x  exists.
x a

iii. lim f  x   f  a  .
x a

A function is discontinuous at a point a if it fails to be continuous at a .

Example 1.11: Determining Continuity at a Point

 sin x
 , x0
Using the definition, determine whether the function f  x    x is continuous at
1, x0
x  0 . Justify the conclusion.
Solution
First, observe that
f  0  1.
Next,
sin x
lim f  x   lim  1 . (from question 4 in Exercise 1.1)
x0 x x0

Last, compare f  0 and lim f  x  . We see that

x0

lim f  x   f  0  .
x0

Since all three of the conditions in the definition of continuity are satisfied, f  x  is continuous at
x 0.

Example 1.12: Determining Continuity at a Point

 x 2  4, x  3
Using the definition, determine whether the function f  x    is continuous at
4 x  8, x  3
x  3 . Justify the conclusion.
Solution
Let’s begin by trying to calculate f  3 .
f  3    3  4  5 .
2

Thus, f  3 is defined. Next, we calculate lim f  x  . To do this, we must compute lim f  x  and
x 3 x 3

lim f  x  :
x 3 

lim f  x     3  4  5
2

x 3 

and
lim f  x   4  3  8  4 .
x 3 

Therefore, lim f  x  does not exist. Thus f  x  is not continuous at 3.

x 3

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Calculus Vol. 1 15

Theorem 1.5: Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions

Polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point in their domains.
Theorem 1.6: Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are continuous over their entire domains.

Example 1.13: Continuity of a Rational Function

x  1
For what values of x is f  x   continuous?
x  5
Solution
x  1
The rational function f  x  is continuous for every value of x except x  5 .
x  5
Continuity over an Interval
Now that we have explored the concept of continuity at a point, we extend that idea to continuity
over an interval. As we develop this idea for different types of intervals, it may be useful to keep
in mind the intuitive idea that a function is continuous over an interval if we can use a pencil to
trace the function between any two points in the interval without lifting the pencil from the paper.
In preparation for defining continuity on an interval, we begin by looking at the definition of what
it means for a function to be continuous from the right at a point and continuous from the left at a
point.
Continuity from the Right and from the Left
A function f  x  is said to be continuous from the right at a if lim f  x   f  a  .
xa

A function f  x  is said to be continuous from the left at a if lim f  x   f  a  .

xa

A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. A
function f  x  is continuous over a closed interval of the form  a, b if it is continuous at every
point in  a, b  and is continuous from the right at a and is continuous from the left at b .
Analogously, a function f  x  is continuous over an interval of the form (a, b] if it is continuous
over  a, b  and is continuous from the left at b . Continuity over other types of intervals are
defined in a similar fashion.

Example 1.14: Continuity over an interval

x 1
State the interval(s) over which the function f  x   is continuous.
x2  2 x
Solution
x 1
Since f  x   is a rational function, it is continuous at every point in its domain. The
x2  2 x
domain of f  x  is the set  , 2   2,0   0,  . Thus, f  x  is continuous over each of the
intervals  , 2 ,  2, 0 and  0,  .

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Calculus Vol. 1 16

Example 1.15: Continuity over an interval

State the interval(s) over which the function f  x   4  x 2 is continuous.

Solution

From the limit laws, we know that lim 4  x 2  4  a 2 for all values of a in  2, 2 . We
xa

also know that lim 4  x 2  0 exists and lim 4  x 2  0 exists. Therefore, f  x  is

x2 x2

continuous over the interval  2, 2 .

EXERCISE 1.3

2 x  1, x  1

1. Using the definition, determine whether the function f  x    2, x  1 is continuous at
 x  4, x  1

x  3 . Justify the conclusion.
2. State the interval(s) over which the function f  x   x  3 is continuous.
3. For the following exercises, determine whether the function is continuous at the given point.
2 x2  5x  3  x sin x, x  
(a) f  x   at x  1. (d) f  x    at x   .
x 1  x tan x, x  
sin  y   6u 2  u  2
(b) f  y   at y  1. ,u 
1
tan  y  
 2 at u  1 .
(e) g  u    2u  1
x  e , x  0
2 x
7 , 1 2
(c) h  x    at x  0. u

2 2
 x  1, x  0

4. In the following exercises, find the value(s) of k that makes each function continuous over the
given interval.
 x 2  3x  2 
 kx , 0 x3
 , x  2 (c) g  x    .
(a) f  x    x  2 .
 x  1,
 3  x  10
k , x  2
 3 x  2, x4
e ,
kx
0 x4 (d) h  x    .
(b) g  x    . 2 x  k , x4
 x  3, 4  x  8

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