LABORATORY

MANUAL
ODD SEMESTER
Course Title : Network And Systems lab
Course Code
Programme :
Semester
: B.Tech

: III

DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCES
BHIMTAL, NAINITAL, UTTARAKHAND 263136 INDIA
 LIST OF PROGRAMS

NETWORK AND SYSTEMS LAB (COURSE CODE)

S.No. Program Page No.

1. Implementation and verification of Maximum

Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

2. Implementation and verification of Thevnin's

and Norton's theorem in ac circuits.

3. Implementation and verification of Tellegens

theorem.

4. Implementation and verification of Reciprocity

theorem.
5. Design and testing of transient analysis in RC/RL
circuits.

6. Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC

circuits.
7. To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a given two-
port networks.
8. Implementation and verification of transfer
function of two-port network.
9. To calculate image and characteristic
impedance in T and a networks.
Implementation and verification of inter-connection
10. i.e. cascade, series, parallel, effect of loading of two-
port networks.

11. Design and implementation of K-derived LPF and

HPF in T-sections.
12. Temperature dependent circuits and their analysis.

Course Coordinator HOD

 (ECP-032 )NETWORKS AND SYSTEMS LAB
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
This course enables the students to:

1. To design and implement various theorems

2. To design and implement transient response of RLC circuits.

3. illustrate and outline the Multi-terminal network in engineering

4. select and design of filters

COURSE OUTCOMES:
1. Students will be able to design and implement various theorems.

2. Students will be able to design and implement transient response of RLC circuits.

3. Students will be able to design the experiments, analyze and interpretation various two
port network parameters
4. Students will be able to design the experiments, analyze and interpretation filters.

5. Students will acquire skills of teamwork, technical communication and effective report
writing.
 EXPERIMENT: 01
Implementation and verification of
Maximum Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac
circuits.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify Maximum Power Transfer and

Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

When load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from the source
to the las The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If
load resistance R_{5} ma equal to the internal resistance R of the source, then
maximum power is transferred to the load R This is knows as maximum power
transfer theorem and can be state as follows
"Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is
made equal the internal resistance of the source" This applies to DC as well as AC
power.
APPLICATIONS:
Electric power systems never operate for maximum power transfer because of low
efficiency are high voltage drops between generated voltage and load. However, m the
electronic circuit maximum power transfer is usually desirable. For instance, in a public
address system, it is desirable to have load (ie speaker) "Matched" to the amplifier so
that there is maximum transference. power from the amplifier to the

Super Position Theorem:

Super Position Theorem states that in a network of linear resistances containing more than
on source of em f, the current which flows at any points is the sum of all the currents which
would flow at that point if each em.f source (voltage source) where considered separately
and all the other em.f sources replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their
internal resistances (if any).

speaker. "In such situations, efficiency is sacrificed at the cost of hi power transfer

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Page 6 of 53
PROCEDURE:

Verification of SuperPosition Theorem:

Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 (a) through patch cords.
Considering only one voltage source at a time first 12, Volt

R_{T} = 50 + 33.33 = 83.33ohm

I_{T} = 12/83.33 = 144mA
I_{1} = I_{T}
I{3}=144 X 100 / 150 = 96mA

(For better accuracy check that current by using Digital Multimeter because
AC Analo Milliammeter are not sensitive at lower ranges, when circuit
divided in branches. The circuit parallel resistances effect the Milliammeter
internal shunt resistance)

Therefore Current
I{1} = 60 – 20 = 40, mAmp.
(Check it at Digital Multimeter)
I{2} = 20, mAmp.
I{3} = 60, mAmp. according to Super Position Theorem.

Net algebraic Sum :

Current Through Resistance R{1} = I{1} = 144 – 40 = 104, mAmp.

Current Through Resistance R{2} = I{2} = 48 + 20 = 68, mAmp.

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Current Through Resistance R{3} = I{3} = 96 + 60 = 36, mAmp.
(For better accuracy check it at Digital Multimeter).
When Source volts is 12, Volt only :
V{R1} = I{1} x R{1} = 144 mA x 50 = 7.2 Volt.
V{R2} = I{2} x R{2} = 48 mA x 100 = 4.8 Volt.
V{R3} = I{3} x R{3} = 96 mA x 50 = 4.8 Volt.

When Source volts is 5, Volt only :

V{R1} = I{1} x R{1} = 40 x 50 = 2.0 Volt.
V{R2} = I{2} x R{2} = 20 mA x 100 = 2.0 Volt.
V{R3} = I{3} x R{3} = 60 mA x 50 = 3.0 Volt.
Final Volt drop across resistors :
V{R1} = I{1} x R{1} = 104 x 50 = 5.2 Volt.
V{R2} = I{2} x R{2} = 68 mA x 100 = 6.8 Volt.
V{R3} = I{3} x R{3} = 36 x 50 = 1.8 Vol

Page 8 of 53
VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM :

When load is connected across a voltage source, power is transferred from the source to the
load. The amount of power transferred will depend upon the load resistance. If load
resistance RL is made equal to the internal resistance Ri of the source, then maximum power
is transferred to the load RL. This is known as maximum power transfer theorem and can be
stated as follows.

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"Maximum Power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is made
equal to the internal resistance of the source". This applies to DC as well as AC power.
To prove this theorem mathematically, consider a voltage source of generated voltage E, an
internal resistance Ri and delivering power to a load resistance RL as shown in Fig. 1 (a).
The current I flowing through the circuit is given by:
I = E/RL+RiI
Power delivered to the load:

P = I2RL = [E/RL+Ri]2RL (1)

For a given source, generated voltage E and internal resistance Ri are constant. Therefore,
power delivered to the load depends upon RL. In order to find the value of RL for which the
value of P is maximum, it is necessary to differentiate Eq. (1) w.r.t. RL and set the result
equal to zero.
Thus,
dP/dRL = E2(RL+Ri)2−RL(RL+Ri)/(RL+Ri)4 = 0
or

(RL+Ri)2−2RL(RL+Ri) = 0

Or

(RL+Ri)−Ri(RL+Ri−2RL)=0
or
(RL+Ri)(Ri+RL)=0
Since (RL+Ri) cannot be zero,

Ri−RL=0 or RL=Ri
i.e. load resistance = internal resistance.
Thus for maximum power transfer, load resistance RLR_LRL must be equal to the internal
resistance RiR_iRi of the source. Under such conditions, the load is said to be matched to the
resistance RiR_iRi of the source. Fig. 1 (b) shows a graph of power delivered to RLR_LRL
as a function of RiR_iRi. It may be mentioned that efficiency of maximum power transfer is
50% as one half of the total generated power is dissipated in this internal resistance RiR_iRi
of the source.

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect 12 Volt AC Regulated Power Supply in the circuit (indicated by dotted lines).
2. Connect R and VR (load resistance) in the circuit and also connect current meter and
voltmeter in the circuit.
3. Now increase the value of load resistance (VR) in steps and note down the
corresponding value of voltage and current. Calculate the power using formula:
P=V×IP = V \times IP=V×I
5. At a particular point when load resistance is made equal to the value of R1R_1R1 (i.e.,
internal resistance of a source) maximum power is transferred from source to load.
Plot graph between power output and load resistance.

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Result :-
Implemented and verified Maximum Power Transfer and
Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

Conclusion:
The Maximum Power Transfer and Superposition theorems were successfully implemented
and verified. It was observed that maximum power is transferred when the load resistance
equals the internal resistance of the source, and that the response of a network with multiple
sources can be determined by considering each source independently and then summing the
effects.

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 EXPERIMENT: 02
Implementation and verification of Maximum
Power
Transfer and Superposition theorems in ac circuits.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify Thevnin's and Norton's theorem in ac

circuits.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Thevenin’s theorem :
Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, irrespective of
how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage source and a series
resistance.

Norton's theorem:
Norton's theorem states that any linear circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source in parallel with a single resistor. This equivalent circuit,
known as the Norton equivalent, behaves identically to the original circuit when connected
to a load. The theorem simplifies circuit analysis by reducing complex networks to a much
simpler form

VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN THEOREM :

R{1} = 500, ohm.
V = 12, Volt.
R{2} = 100, ohm.
R{3} = 90, ohm.
R{L} = 50, ohm.

Resistance between X & Y (Rx) = 90 + 50 = 140, ohm.

Resistance between a and b = 140 x 100 / 240 = 58.4, ohm.
Total Resistance RT = 500 + 58.4 = 558.4, ohm.
Voltage Across a-b = 12 / 558.4 x 58.4 = 1.25, Volt.
Voltage Across RL = 1.25 x 50 / 40 = 0.446, Volt.
Current Through RL = 0.446 / 50 = 8.8, mAmp.

For Load Resistance = 25, ohm.

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Resistance between X & Y (Rx) = 90 + 25 = 115, ohm.
Resistance between a and b = 115 x 100 / 215 = 53.48, ohm.
Total Resistance RT = 500 + 53.48 = 553.48, ohm.
Voltage Across a & b = 12 / 553.48 x 53.48 = 1.15, Volt.
Voltage Across RL = 1.15 x 25 / 115 = 0.252, Volt.
Current Through RL = 0.252 / 25 = 10.0, mAmp
.

STEP – 1:

Open load and measure volt across open end Z₁ – Z₂, resulting circuit as shown in Fig. 2 (a)
Open Circuit Volt = 1.75, Volt (Measured)
Open Circuit Volt which will appear across 100 ohm resistance
Vth = (100 x 12) / 600 = 2, Volt.

STEP – 2:
Now short circuit the volt source (with RL open circuit), the resulting circuit as shown in
Fig. 2 (b)
Now measure the Resistance at Z₁ – Z₂
R = (500 x 100) / (500 + 100) + 90 = 173.40 ohm.
Now above circuit between Z₁ – Z₂ may be replaced as:
SVth = 2, Volt.
Rth = 173.4, ohm.
RL = 25, ohm.
IL = 2 / (173.40 + 25) = 10, mAmp.
For RL = 50, ohm.
IL = 2 / (173.40 + 50) = 8.9, mAmp.

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Page | 14
VERIFICATION OF NORTON’S THEOREM:
STEP – 1:
Open load and measure volt across Z₁ – Z₂, resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3 (a).
Open Circuit Volt which will appear across 100 ohm resistance.
Vnor = (100 x 12) / 600 = 2, Volt.

STEP – 2:
Now disconnect voltage source and short the A & B points as shown in the circuit diagram
(with RL open circuit) Fig. 3 (b).
Now measure the Resistance at Z₁ – Z₂
Rnor=500×100500+100+90=173.4 ohm.R_{nor} = \frac{500 \times 100}{500 + 100} + 90
= 173.4 \, \text{ohm}.
Short circuit current
Isc = VnorRnor
Isc = 2/73.4
Isc = 11.5 , mA
The equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3 (c).
Now the circuit may be replaced as:
Isc = 11.5 mAmp.I_{sc} = 11.5 mAmp
Isc = 173.40, ohm.R_{sc} .= 173.40, \, ohm.
For RL = 25 ohm
I L = 11.5×173.40/173.40+25= 10 mAmp.
For RL = 50 ohm
I L = 11.5×173.40/173.40+50= 8.9 mAmp.

Result : Implemented and verified Thevnin's and Norton's theorem in ac circuits.

Conclusion:
The Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems were verified successfully. Complex circuits were
simplified into equivalent voltage or current sources with resistances, and the load behavior
matched theoretical predictions, confirming the validity of these theorems in AC circuits.

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 EXPERIMENT: 03
Implementation and verification of Tellegens theorem.
.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify of Tellegens theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Experimental board on Tellegen’s theorem
2. Digital voltmeter 0-2V
3. Digital voltmeter 0-20V
4. Digital ammeter 0-20mA 5. Digital ammeter 0-200mA

THEORY:

Topology is an important branch of mathematics and has applications in many field of science
and engineering. Electrical networks are composed of branches with junction between them,
therefore,

they have topological properties.

Topological branch is defined as a branch, which is left after the sources in the network have
been reduced to zero. Zero voltage source means short circuit and zero current source means
open circuit. Consider the network shown in Fig.1, which is composed of a two terminal
elements across which a voltage exists and through which a current flows. In this network,
arbitrary reference directions have been selected for all of the branch currents and the
corresponding branch voltage is indicated, with the positive reference direction at the tail of
the current arrow. Now for this network, select a set of branch voltage and a set of branch
currents without any consideration of the previous choice of branch voltages. The only
requirements are that the voltage must satisfy KVL and KCL be satisfied at each node. Then it
can be shown that these arbitrarily chosen voltages and currents satisfy the equation.

b  VkIk=0 (1) k =1

Where b represents the elements/number of branches in the network. Consider the network of
Fig. 1 again and choose node D as the datum. Express the V k in terms of the node-to datum
voltage eA, eB, eC, and eD. Expressing the element voltages in terms of the node-to datum
voltages satisfies KVL.

Then,

V1 = eA, - eD, V2 = eA - eB, V3 = eB - eD,

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 V4 = eB, - eC, V5 = eC - eD, V6 =eA--eC (2)

Now Substitute the voltages obtained in Eq.2 for the VK in the sum  vk ik and rearrange the
resulting sum to put in the form eA ( currents) + eB ( currents) + eC ( currents).

 v k i k = (eA – eD) i1 + (eA – eB) i2 + (eB – eD) i3

k =1

+ (eB – eC) i4 + (eC – eD) i5 + (eA – eC) i6

= eA(i1 +i2 +i6) + eB (-i2 + i3 + i4) + eC (-i4+ i5 + i6) + eD (-i1 –i3 – i5)

= eA (KCL at node A) + eB ( KCL at node B)

+ eC (KCL at node C) + eD ( KCL at node D)

=0

Each product in above equation vanishes because each KCL summation equal zero at the
node. Therefore, one can say that b  V k I k = 0 k =1 Where Ik is the current and Vk is the
voltage associated with the k th element. The above equation is same as Equation 1 and is the
Tellegen’s theorem

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Procedure
1. Assemble the circuit as shown in Fig.1 by connecting terminals 2 – 6 – 10; 1 – 3 – 11; 4 –
5 – 7 and 8 – 9 – 12 by connecting leads.
2. Now disconnect the connection 2 to 6 (keep the connection 6 to 10 as it is) and connect
VS between terminals 2 and 6. Draw the circuit and topology of this assembled resistive
network with voltage source in your note book..
3. Assign voltage with polarity and current with direction for each branch (resistance)
according to Fig.1 in the circuit drawn in step 2.
4. With the help of digital voltmeter measure the voltage of each branch according the
polarity assigned in step 3 and note them with positive or negative sign. Select the range of
the voltmeter as convenient,
5. Now measure the current in each branch with digital ammeter according to the direction as
assigned in step 3 and note them with positive or negative sign. Assume that the currents
entering the node are negative and leaving the node are positive. Select the range of the
ammeter as convenient.
6. Find the sum of products of voltage and current of each branch, you will find that the sum
is almost zero. This proves Eq.1, i.e., this proves the Tellegen’s theorem for this circuit.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sno Branch Voltage Current Power

1 R1 4.98 +18.9 +0.0943

2 R2 2.01 +9.8 +0.0197

3 R3 5.02 +22 +0.1104

4 R4 3.01 +14.8 +0.0446

5 R5 4.00 +12.5 +0.05

6 R5 20.00 -15.95 -0.3190

Result :
We have study and verifies of Tallegen’s Theorem

Conclusion:
Tellegen’s theorem was verified by practical measurement of voltages and currents in a
resistive network. The sum of the products of voltage and current across all branches equaled
zero, thereby confirming the theorem’s validity in electrical networks.

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 EXPERIMENT: 4

Implementation and verification of Reciprocity

theorem.

OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify Reciprocity

theorem.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. DC circuit training system
2. Set of wires.
3. DC Power supply
4. Digital A.V.O. meter

THEORY:

In any bilateral linear network containing one or more generators the ratio of a voltage
introduced in on mesh to the current (I) in any second mesh is the same as the ratio obtained if
the position of voltage and current are interchanged other emf being removed .Let us consider
a general network.

Procedure:-
1- Using the DC circuit trainer, connect the circuit Shown in Fig. (1-a) , take V =5V, and
R1=10kΩ, R2 = 100Ω and R3 =1kΩ.
2- Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table below

Component Resistance Measured Voltage Measured Current

(V) (I)
R1 10 kΩ 1.20 V 0.120 mA
R2 100 Ω 3.00 V 30.00 mA

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 R3 1 kΩ 0.80 V 0.800 mA

2-

3- Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measured the equivalent resistance by
using the AVO meter only.

4- Change the voltage supply position shown in fig (1-b) .

5- Measure the voltage and current of "R1 , R2 & R3", then record it in table below

Component Resistance Measured Voltage Measured Current

(V) (I)

R1 10 kΩ 0.80 V 0.080 mA

R2 100 Ω 3.00 V 30.00 mA

R3 1 kΩ 1.20 V 1.200 mA

6- Disconnect the DC power supply, and then measure the equivalent resistance by
using the AVO meter only.

Result :-
we studied Verification of Reciprocity theorem

Conclusion:
The Reciprocity theorem was successfully verified. It was shown that in a bilateral linear
network, the interchange of source and response elements yields the same ratio, confirming
the reciprocal nature of such circuits.

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 EXPERIMENT: 05
Design and testing of transient analysis in RC/RL
circuits

OBJECTIVE: To Design and testing of transient analysis in RC/RL circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
4. Breadboard
5. Jumper wires
6. DC Power supply
7. Oscilloscope
8. Function generator
9. Multimeter

THEORY:

1. RC circuit:
A capacitor will charge when it is connected to a dc voltage source, When the capacitor is
fully charged, there is no current. (A capacitor behaves as open circuit). But when the
voltage source is disconnected and the wire is connected across a charged capacitor the
capacitor will discharge as shown in the Fig.1 below

A capacitor charges and discharges following an exponential curve, as shown in Fig.2

below. In these graphs, the approximate percentage of full charge is shown at each time-
constant Interval .The charging curve is an increasing exponential, and the discharging curve
is a decreasing exponential. It takes five time constant interval to change the voltage by
99%. This five time-constant interval is generally accepted as the time to fully charge or
discharge a capacitor and is called the transient time

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2. RL circuit
When an inductor is connected in series with a resistor and dc source, Increasing and
decreasing voltages and currents follow exponential curves, the current will increase to
approximately 63% of its full value in one time-constant interval after voltage is applied as
shown in the Fig.3 below

Regarding to the induced voltage (VL) across the inductor it decreases as the current
increases which means if the induced voltage across the inductor has decreased by 63%,
which causes the current to increase by 63% as shown in Fig.4.

Procedure (RC Charging/Discharging ):

1. Use Multisim to connect the RC circuit shown in Fig.5 below :

2. Set the oscilloscope horizontal axis (time) at 100us/div, and vertical axis (voltage) at
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0.5V/div. Connect the probe at “VC”, as shown in Fig.5 above, turn-on the simulator and
display the charging/discharging waveform on the OSC.
3. Stop the auto-run of the oscilloscope. Activate vertical cursors to start taking
measurements. Put the 2nd cursor at the start instance and move the 1st cursor in steps using
the differential time between the two markers (ΔT) to fill the Table.1 below:

4. Measure ΔT when VC ≈ 1.57V. This is the actual time-constant of charging circuit.

5. Sketch at the graph paper(1) below , the capacitor charging/discharging voltage waveform
using the values at Table.1. The charging /discharging curve must be compared with
theoretical curve. Graph Paper(1)
6. Use breadboard to build the RC circuit at Fig.6 and use real Oscilloscope & Function
generator to fill Table.2 below:
7. Set the function generator to the following parameters: Function: Square-wave
Frequency: 1KHz Amplitude: 2.5Vpp or 1.25 Vp
8. Run the signal generator, adjust the oscilloscope axes to display the waveform at ‘A’
channel

9. Use cursors to measure the first time constant.

T1 =

II. Procedure (RL Increasing /Decreasing ):

1. Use breadboard to connect the circuit in Fig.7 shown below on breadboard and use real
Oscilloscope & Function generator to fill Table.3 below:
2. Set the function generator to the following parameters: Function: Square-wave,

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Frequency: 1kHz, Amplitude: 1.25Vp( 2.5Vpp),
3. Run the function generator, adjust the oscilloscope axes to monitor the inductor voltage
(VL)
4. Use the differential time in the OSC (ΔT) to fill the Table.3: ΔT 5us 50us 100us 200us
300us 400us 500us 600us 700us 800us 900us VL
5. Use cursors to measure the first time constant. = 1T࣎
6. Sketch at the graph paper(2) below the inductor increasing/decreasing voltage waveform
using the values at Table.3. The increasing/decreasing voltage curve must be compared with
theoretical curve.
Graph Paper(2)

Result : Designed and tested transient analysis in RC/RL circuits

Conclusion:
The transient response of RC and RL circuits was designed, tested, and verified. The
exponential charging and discharging of capacitors, as well as the growth and decay of
current in inductors, were observed, matching the theoretical time constant behavior.

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 EXPERIMENT: 06
Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC
circuits.

OBJECTIVE: To Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC circuits.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A Computer with Waveforms installed
2. Analog Discovery 2
3. Breadboard Breakout for the Analog Discovery 2 with a Ribbon Cable
4. USB A to Micro-B cable
5. Digital multimeter
6. MB102 breadboard
7. Jumper wires
8. The following Resistors (1/4 watt, 1% or 5%)
a. 100Ω resistor
b. 1.0kΩ resistor
9. 100nF capacitor
10.220nF capacitor
11.10mH inductor

THEORY:

Resistors
As has been studied before, the application of a voltage V to a resistor (with resistance R in
Ohms), results in a current I, according to the formula:I=VR(1)The current response to
voltage change is instantaneous; a resistor has no transient response.

Inductors
A change in voltage across an inductor (with inductance L in Henrys) does not result in an
instantaneous change in the current through it. The i-v relationship is described with the
equation:v=Ldidt(2)This relationship implies that the voltage across an inductor approaches
zero as the current in the circuit reaches a steady value. This means that in a DC circuit, an
inductor will eventually act like a short circuit.

Capacitors
The transient response of a capacitor (with Capacitance C in Farads) is such that it resists
instantaneous change in the voltage across it. Its i−v relationship is described
by:i=Cdvdt(3)This implies that as the voltage across the capacitor reaches a steady value,
the current through it approaches zero. In other words, a capacitor eventually acts like an
open circuit in a DC circuit.

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Procedures :

Transient response of a series RLC circuit

Solving the circuit below involves the solution of first and second order differential
equations. Only the solution has been included, as that is all that is needed for the lab.

In theory, there are three cases for the way a series RLC circuit will respond when the
switch is closed at time t=0. In this lab, only the underdamped case will be dealt with. For
this case, the current in the circuit is described by:

I=VOωdL exp(−αt) sin(ωdt) (10)

Where
ωd=√ω20−α2 (11)
ω0=1√LCandα=R2L (12)
Equation (10) describes a current that is both fluctuating and deteriorating, as shown
in Figure 1.4:

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The current in the circuit oscillates due to the sine component in Equation (10), but the
maximum value it can reach is decaying due to the negative exponential. The “envelope”
that the current must fall within is described by:
i=±VOωdL exp(−αt)or|i|=VOωdL exp(−αt) (13)
The quantity α is referred to as the time constant of the envelope. It is determined by taking
the natural logarithm of both sides of the above equation:
ln|i|=lnVOωdL−αt (14)
which is a linear equation. If a graph of ln|i| vs. t is plotted, its slope will be –α

Result :
studied Design and testing of transient analysis in RLC circuits.

Conclusion:
The transient analysis of RLC circuits was successfully carried out. The underdamped
response of the series RLC network showed decaying oscillations, validating the theoretical
concepts of damping factor and natural frequency.

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 EXPERIMENT: 07
To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a given
two port networks.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To calculate Z, Y, ABCD parameters of a given two

port networks.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Bread Board
3. Five resistances
4. Connecting Leads.
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter

THEORY:.
Z Parameters:
In Z parameters of a two-port, the input & output voltages V1 & V2 can be expressed in
terms of input & output currents I1 & I2. Out of four variables (i.e V1, V2, I1, I2) V1& V2
are dependent variables whereas I1 & I2 are independent variables. Thus,
V1 = Z11I1+ Z12 I2 -----(1)
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2 ----(2)
Here Z11 & Z22 are the input & output driving point impedances while Z12 & Z21 are the
reverse & forward transfer impedances.

PROCEDURE:
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P Voltage & I/P
Current.
c) Secondly, open I/P terminal & supply 5V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P Voltage & O/P
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current using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the values of Z parameter using Equation (1) & (2). e) Switch ‘OFF’ the supply
after taking the readings.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Case 1: Output Open-Circuited (I₂ = 0)

Measurement V1 (V) V2 (V) I1 (mA)

Reading 1 5.0 3.5 2.5

Case 2: Input Open-Circuited (I₁ = 0)

Measurement V1 (V) V2 (V) I2 (mA)

Reading 2 2.0 5.0 1.8

(1) When O/P is open circuited i.e. I2 = 0 Z11 = V1/I1 Z21 =V2 /I1
(2) When I/P is open circuited i.e. II = 0 Z12 = V1/I2 Z22 = V2 /I2

RESULT : The Z-parameters of the two port network has been calculated and verified.

B) Y Parameters :

In Y parameters of a two-port , the input & output currents I1 & I2 can be expressed in
terms of input & output voltages V1 & V2 . Out of four variables (i.e I1, I2, V, V2) I1& I2
are dependent variables whereas V1 & V2 are independent variables.
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 ------(1)
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 -------(2)
Here Y11 & Y22 are the input & output driving point admittances while Y12 & Y21are the
reverse & forward transfer admittances.

PROCEDURE :

Page | 31
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First short the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P & I/P current
c) Secondly, short I/P terminal & supply 5V to O/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P current
using multi-meter.
d) Calculate the values of Y parameter using Eq. (1) & (2). e) Switch ‘off’ the supply after
taking the readings

Case 1: Output Short-Circuited (V₂ = 0)

Measurement V1 (V) I1 (mA) I2 (mA)

Reading 1 5.0 20.0 8.0

Case 2: Input Short-Circuited (V₁ = 0)

Measurement V2 (V) I1 (mA) I2 (mA)

Reading 2 5.0 6.0 18.0
(1) When O/P is short circuited i.e. V2 = 0 Y11 = I1/V1 Y21 = I2
(2) When I/P is short circuited i.e. VI = 0 Y12 = I1/V2 Y22 = I2 /V2

RESULT : The Y-parameters of the two port network has been calculated and verified.

c) ABCD Parameters :
ABCD parameters are widely used in analysis of power transmission engineering where
they are termed as “Circuit Parameters”. ABCD parameters are also known as
“Transmission Parameters”. In these parameters, the voltage & current at the sending end
terminals can be expressed in terms of voltage & current at the receiving end. Thus,
V1 = AV 2 + B (-I2)
I1 = CV2 + D (-I2)
Here “A” is called reverse voltage ratio, “B” is called transfer impedance “C” is called
transfer admittance & “D” is called reverse current ratio.

PROCEDURE :
a) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. & switch ‘ON’ the experimental board.
b) First open the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure O/P voltage & I/P
current
c) Secondly, short the O/P terminal & supply 5V to I/P terminal. Measure I/P & O/P current
using multi-meter.
Page | 32
d) Calculate the A, B, C, & D parameters using the Eq. (1) & (2).
e) Switch ‘off’ the supply after taking the readings.

Case 1: Output Open-Circuited (I₂ = 0)

Measurement V1 (V) V2 (V) I1 (mA)

Reading 1 5.0 4.0 8.0

Case 2: Output Short-Circuited (V₂ = 0)

Measurement V1 (V) I1 (mA) I2 (mA)

Reading 2 2.5 10.0 5.0

(1) When O/P is open circuited i.e. I2 = 0

A = V1/V2 C = I1 /V2
(2) When O/P is short circuited i.e. V2 = 0
B = -V1/I2 D = -I1 /I2

RESULT: The ABCD-parameters of the two-port network has been calculated and verified.

Conclusion:
The Z, Y, and ABCD parameters of the given two-port network were calculated and
verified. The measured results confirmed the theoretical definitions of impedance,
admittance, and transmission parameters, highlighting their importance in network analysis.

EXPERIMENT: 08
Implementation and verification of transfer
Page | 33
 function of two-port network.
OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To Implementation and verification of transfer
function of two-port network.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Power Supply
2. Bread Board
3. Five resistances
4. Connecting Leads.
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter

THEORY:

A two-port network is an electrical network with two pairs of terminals: an input port
and an output port. It is widely used to represent complex circuits such as amplifiers,
filters, and communication systems. To analyze and design such networks, various
parameters are used, such as Z-parameters (Impedance), Y-parameters (Admittance),
H-parameters (Hybrid), and ABCD-parameters (Transmission).
The transfer function of a two-port network expresses the relationship between the
output signal and the input signal in the frequency domain. It is an important tool for
analyzing how the network responds to different frequencies and for determining
characteristics like stability, bandwidth, and gain.

Procedure:

For a one-port network, the driving point impedance or impedance of the network
is defined as

Z(s) = V(s)/I(s)

The reciprocal of the impedance function is the driving point admittance function,
and is denoted by Y(s).

For the Transfer Function of Two Port Network without internal sources, the
driving point impedance function at port 1-1′ is the ratio of the transform voltage
at port 1-1′ to the transform current at the same port.
Page | 34
Similarly, the driving point impedance at port 2-2′ is the ratio of transform voltage
at port 2-2′ to the transform current at the same port.
z22(s) = v2(s)/I2(s)

For the Transfer Function of Two Port Network, the driving point admittance is
defined as the ratio of the transform current at any port to the transform voltage at
the same port.

Therefore

or

Which is the driving point admittance.

The four other network functions are called transfer functions. These functions
give the relation between voltage or current at one port to the voltage or current at
the other port as shown here under.
(i) Voltage transfer ratio:
This is the ratio of voltage transform at one port to the voltage transform at the
other port, and is denoted by G(s)

(ii) Current transfer ratio:

This is the ratio of current transform at one port to current transform at other port,
and is denoted by α(s)

(iii) Transfer impedance:

It is defined as the ratio of voltage transform at one port to the current transform at
the other port, and is denoted by Z(s).

Page | 35
(iv) Transfer admittance:
It is defined as the ratio of current transform at one port to the current transform at
the other port, and is denoted by Y(s).

The above network functions are found by forming the system of equations using
node or mesh analysis, and taking the transforms of equations by setting the initial
conditions to zero and solving for ratio of the response to excitation.

Result : Implemented and Verified of Transfer Function of a Two-Port Network

Conclusion:
The transfer function of a two-port network was implemented and verified. The
experiment demonstrated how input and output relationships can be expressed in
terms of transfer parameters, validating the theoretical concept of transfer ratios and
network functions.

Page | 36
 EXPERIMENT: 09
To calculate image and characteristic impedance in
T and a networks.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To calculate image and characteristic impedance in T

and a networks.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Function generator / signal source (sine wave, audio range)

2. Dual-channel oscilloscope or two voltmeters (AC)
3. Resistors and inductors (as required to build T and π sections) or pre-
built T/π network modules
4. Decade resistance box (or a set of known resistors)
5. Connecting wires and breadboard / PCB
6. LCR meter (to measure component values)
7. Power supply (if active components are used)

THEORY:.
 Image impedance (Zimg) of a network port is the input impedance seen at that
port when the other port is terminated in the image impedance of the opposite
port. In practice, image impedance is the impedance that makes the port-to-port
transfer behave as if the network were infinite (no reflections between sections).
 Characteristic impedance (Z0) is the impedance of an infinite cascade
(repetition) of identical sections (T or π). It is the impedance that, when used to
terminate a single section, makes the cascade look the same at every section (no
reflections; steady-state propagation).
General method to find characteristic impedance (symbolic)
For a T-section represented by two series impedances (each Zs) and a shunt impedance
Zp (seen between the series arms), an infinite cascade condition gives:
Let Z0 be the characteristic impedance seen looking into the cascade.
The input impedance looking into one section followed by the infinite continuation
equals Z0. For one section,
Z_in = Zs + (Zp || Z0)
At steady state of an infinite cascade Z_in = Z0. So solve the equation
Z0 = Zs + (Zp * Z0) / (Zp + Z0)
This is a quadratic in Z0 which can be rearranged and solved to obtain the
characteristic impedance.
(For asymmetric sections, write the correct series/shunt impedances and solve
similarly.)
Image impedance
Image impedance at port A, Z_imgA, may be expressed in terms of the network's two-
Page | 37
port parameters. For passive, reciprocal sections, the image impedance can be
calculated from the series and shunt impedances by deriving the input impedance when
the other port is terminated in its image impedance. A commonly used technique is to
derive expressions for the input impedance as a function of load and then impose the
image termination condition Z_load = Z_imgOpposite and solve self-consistently.
Practical (measured) determination
 For image impedance: experimentally the image impedance at port A is the value
of the load impedance Z_L connected at the other port that makes the input
impedance at port A equal to the measured value which is independent of further
cascades. Practically one varies Z_L (using decade box) until the measured input
voltage ratio or reflection criteria match the theoretical image termination
condition (often found when the insertion loss equals the match value or when
measured voltage across a test load is stationary under swapping).
 For characteristic impedance: build a chain of at least 3–5 identical sections and
measure the input impedance with the far end terminated in various resistances.
The value of termination that minimizes reflections (or makes the input
impedance the same when adding another identical section) approximates Z0.
Alternatively, compute Z0 from measured component values by solving the
cascade equation above.

Procedure:

The procedure below provides both a measurement method and a calculation route.
Use the same steps for both T and π networks with appropriate wiring.
A. Pre-lab preparation
1. Measure actual values of resistors, inductors and capacitors with an LCR meter;
record R, L, C and compute their series or parallel impedances at the test
frequency f (ω=2πf\omega=2\pi f).
2. Choose a test frequency in the audio range (e.g., 1 kHz or 5 kHz) where
component reactances are convenient.
B. Theoretical calculation of Z0 (characteristic impedance)
1. From the measured component values compute complex impedances at the test
frequency. Example:
o For a resistor: Z_R = R.
o For an inductor: Z_L = j\omega L.
o For a capacitor: Z_C = 1/(j\omega C).
2. Identify Zs (series impedance per arm) and Zp (shunt impedance) for the chosen
topology (T or π). For a T with two equal series arms each Zs and a middle shunt
Zp, use the equation in Theory:
3. Z0 = Zs + (Zp * Z0) / (Zp + Z0)
Solve the resulting quadratic for Z0 (choose the physically meaningful root — positive
real part for passive networks at the given frequency).
C. Experimental measurement of image impedance
1. Connect the T-network on a breadboard. Label the two ports as Port 1 and Port 2.
2. Connect the function generator to Port 1 with a small series resistor if necessary
for source matching. Connect oscilloscope channel 1 across Port 1 input (to
measure Vin) and channel 2 across a test load at Port 2 (to measure Vload).
Page | 38
 3. At Port 2 connect a variable load (decade resistance box or potentiometer).
Sweep the load value while keeping input amplitude constant and note the input
voltage and output voltage.
4. Determine the load value that makes the input impedance (calculated from
measured Vin and source impedance) equal to the same value when the network
is reversed (this is the image-termination condition). Practically, you can find the
load which minimizes the variation of input voltage when sections are cascaded
or the load that yields the expected insertion loss for an image-terminated
section.
5. Record the load value — this gives an experimental estimate of image
impedance of the opposite port.
D. Experimental measurement of characteristic impedance (practical method)
1. Construct a cascade of 3 identical T-sections (or π-sections). Terminate the far
end with a variable resistor.
2. Measure the input impedance (or input voltage under fixed source) for several
termination values.
3. The termination value which makes the input impedance insensitive to
adding/removing one section (or which makes the measured input impedance
equal to the theoretical Z0) is the characteristic impedance.
4. Another practical method: terminate a single section with a resistor and measure
the insertion loss; adjust the termination until adding more identical sections
produces no further change in measured input — that termination approximates
Z0.

Observation Tables:

(Record complex voltages if possible — use magnitude and phase or use RMS
magnitudes)

Table 1 — Component values (measured)

Component Marked Value Measured Units Notes

Value
Series R1 100 98 Ω Resistor
Series L1 10 10.2 mH Inductor
Shunt C1 0.1 0.102 µF Capacitor

Table 2 — Theoretical impedances (at test frequency f)

Element Expression Numerical Remarks

Impedance
Z(series arm) Zs R + jωL 98 + j128.2 Ω ω = 2π × 2000
Page | 39
 Z(shunt) Zp 1/(jωC) - j795.8 Ω Capacitor reactance

Table 3 — Image impedance measurement (Port 1 viewed while varying load at Port 2)

Trial Load at Port Vin (V rms) Vload (V Calculated Comment

2 (Ω) rms) Input Z (Ω)
1 300 5.00 2.10 298 -
2 400 5.00 2.50 395 -
3 500 5.00 2.85 495 Match close
4 600 5.00 3.05 590 -

Table 4 — Characteristic impedance measurement (cascade)

Trial Termination Input Vin Input Input Effect Comment

R_term (Ω) (V) Current Zcalc (Ω) when
(A) adding 1
more
section
1 350 5.00 0.014 357 Changes -
2 400 5.00 0.0125 400 No Approx
significant Z0
change
3 450 5.00 0.0111 450 Changes -

Result: Calculated image and characteristic impedance in T and a

networks.

Conclusion:
The image and characteristic impedances of T and π networks were calculated
and verified. The experimental results matched theoretical expectations,
confirming the practical significance of these parameters in network matching
and transmission.

EXPERIMENT: 10
Page | 40
 Implementation and verification of inter-
connection i.e. cascade, series, parallel, effect of
loading of two-port networks.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To Implement and verify of inter-connection i.e.

cascade, series, parallel, effect of loading of two-port networks.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

THEORY:

Interconnection of Two Port Network:

Various types of Interconnection of Two Port Network such as series connection of
two ports, parallel connection of two ports, cascade connection of two ports etc.

Procedure :

Series Connection of Two Ports:

Consider two networks N’ and N” are connected in series as shown in Fig. 6.8 (a).
When two ports are connected in series, we can add their z parameters to get overall
z-parameter of the overall series connection.
Let the z-parameters of network N’ be z’11, z’12, z’21, z’22. Let the z parameters of
network N” be z”11, z”12, z”21, z”22. Let the overall z-parameters of series connection
be z11, z12, z21, z22.

For series connection we have,

For network N’ , z-parameter equations are,

Page | 41
For network N”, z-parameter equations are,

From equations (1) , (2) and (3) , (4) we can write,

In the Matrix form, above equations can be written as,

Thus, overall z-parameters are,

Hence, the z-parameters of the series connection are the sum of z-parameters of the
individual network connected in series.
Parallel Connection of Two Ports:
Consider two networks N’ and N” are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 6.8 (b).
When two ports are connected in parallel, we can add their y-parameters to get
overall y-parameters of the parallel connection.

Let the y-parameters of the network N’ by y’11, y’12, y’21, y’22. Let the y-parameters of
the network N” be y”11, y”12, y”21, y”22. Let the overall y-parameters of parallel
connection be y11, y12, y21, y22.
For parallel connection we have,

For network N’, the y-parameter equations are,

Page | 42
For network N” the y-parameter equations are,

From equations (1), (2) and (3), (4), we can write,

In matrix form, above equations can be written as,

Thus, overall y-parameters are,

Hence, the y-parameters of the parallel connection are the sum of y-parameters of the
individual networks connected in parallel.
Cascade Connection of Two Ports:
The cascade connection is also called Tandem connection. Consider two networks N’
and N” are connected in cascade as shown in Fig. 6.8 (c). When two ports are
connected in cascade, we can multiply their individual transmission parameters to get
overall transmission parameters of the cascade connection.

Let the transmission parameters of network N’ be A’ , B’ ,C’ , D’. Let the

transmission parameters of network N” be A”, B”, C”, D”. Let the overall
transmission parameters of cascade connection be A, B, C, D.
For cascade connection we have,

For the network N’, transmission parameter equations are,

For the network N”, transmission parameter equations are,

The overall transmission parameters of the cascade connection can be written as,
Page | 43
Hence, the transmission parameters for the cascaded two port network is simply the
matrix product of the transmission parameter matrix of each individual two port
network in cascade.
Series and Parallel Permissibility of Connection:
Before interconnecting two ports it is very important to check for the overall port if
the current entering one terminal is same as that leaving other terminal of same port.
This test is called as Validy test or Brune’s Test.
If the 2-port networks to be interconnected do not satisfy Brune’s test, an ideal
transformer of 1:1 turns ratio is connected at one of the ports. This transformer
provides necessary isolation and it also ensures that the characteristics of any
network does not alter due to the interconnection with other.
The permissibility of connection of two port network through the transformer is as
shown in the Fig. 6.9 (a) to (d).

Page | 44
Result : Implemented and verified inter-connection i.e. cascade, series, parallel,
effect of loading of two-port networks

Conclusion:
The interconnections of two-port networks (cascade, series, and parallel) were
implemented and verified. The results confirmed that overall network parameters can
be derived from the individual networks, and the effect of loading was clearly
Page | 45
observed.

EXPERIMENT: 11
Design and implementation of K-derived LPF and
HPF in T-sections.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: Design and implementation of K-derived LPF and

HPF in T-sections.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
(ii) Variable frequency oscillator
(iii) Oscillosope
Page | 46
(iv) High impedance voltmeter

THEORY:

Filter networks are widely used in communication systems to separate variousvoice

channels from the carrier frequency. Filters are classified as low-pass, band-pass,
high-passband-reject etc. depending on frequency range to be passed to the load or
blocked. Filters arealsoclassified as Active and Passive filters depending on the
active or passive components used. Conventional or passive filters use passive
components R, L and C.
Filter networks may be of T-section or -section depending on its configuration. The
basic parametersto be considered for a filter design are Characteristic impedance
(Z0), Pass band, Stop band, Cut-off frequency, Attenuation and Phase constant.
Passive filters are designed using inductors (L) andcapacitors (C). In constant-k
design, the product of series impedance (Z1) and shunt impedance(Z2) is always
constant, i.e. 2 1 2 Z Z  k , where k is a real constant and matches with the load
resistanceR0. In m-derived filters, sharper attenuation characteristics and uniform
characteristic impedance is obtained by using anti-resonance circuits in shunt path of
T-network or in series path of -network.

Page | 47
PROCEDURE :
1. Design a constant-k or prototype T-section and -section Low Pass filter with cut-
off frequencyof 8kHz and load resistance of 500.
2. Design a constant-k or prototype T-section and -section High Pass filter with cut-
off frequencyof 8kHz and load resistance of 500.
3. Design an m-derived T-section and -section Low Pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 8kHzandload resistance of 500. Infinite attenuation occurring at
9.24kHz.
4. Design an m-derived T-section and -section High Pass filter with cut-off
frequency of 8kHzandload resistance of 500. Infinite attenuation occurring at
6.93kHz.
5. Build the filter networks designed in (1) to (4) above with available components
andcheckfrequency response of each network between 2kHz – 20kHz. Take several
readings by varyingthe frequency of the oscillator (at least
5 close readings around the cut-off frequency). Eachtime, maintain the magnitude of
input voltage at same value.

Observation:

Frequenc Input Output Gain Attenuatio

y (kHz) Voltag Voltag (Vout/Vin n (dB)
e (V) e (V) )
2.0 1.0 0.98 0.98 -0.17
4.0 1.0 0.95 0.95 -0.45
6.0 1.0 0.90 0.90 -0.92
8.0 1.0 0.70 0.70 -3.10
10.0 1.0 0.50 0.50 -6.02
12.0 1.0 0.30 0.30 -10.46
16.0 1.0 0.10 0.10 -20.00
20.0 1.0 0.05 0.05 -26.02

Result : Designed and implemented of K-derived LPF and HPF in T-

sections.
Page | 48
Conclusion:
The design and implementation of K-derived low-pass and high-pass filters in T-
sections were successfully carried out. The measured frequency responses matched
the expected cutoff frequencies and attenuation characteristics, validating filter
design theory.

EXPERIMENT: 12
Temperature dependent circuits and their analysis.

OBJECTIVE: OBJECTIVE: To study Temperature dependent circuits and their

analysis.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
PHYWE power supply, Thermostat, Immersion probes, Bath for thermostat, Digital Multi-
meter, Resistor, Connecting cord, Tubing connector.

THEORY:
n restricted temperature ranges the change in the resistance of the electrical
components can be assumed to be linear. In these regions, the general formula for the

𝑹(𝑻) = 𝑹𝟐𝟎 + 𝑹𝟐𝟎.𝜶. (𝑻 − 𝟐𝟎 °𝐂)

dependence of the resistance on the temperature is valid;

Where;
Page | 49
R(T) = Resistance at T
R20 = Resistance at 20 °C
α = Temperature coefficient
T = Temperature at time of measurement
By rearranging and substituting the measured values the temperature coefficient can
be determined using the formula. In copper wire the free path of the electrons in the
electron vapor, which contribute to charge transport, becomes shorter with increasing

𝜶𝑪𝒖 = 𝟓. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 /𝑲
temperature. The change in resistance can be clearly seen:

The resistance of the CuNi wire is nearly constant over the measured range. This is in

𝐑𝐭𝐨𝐭 = 𝐑𝟐𝟎 + 𝐑(𝐓)

accordance with Mathies rule, which states;

The change in the resistance with the temperature is very slight in the measured
temperature range. Consequently, the absolute resistance (R20) is predominant. This

𝜶𝑪𝒖𝑵𝒊 = −𝟏. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 /𝑲

experiment provides a negative temperature coefficient of;

In the carbon-layer resistor, the absolute resistance is very high to begin with. The
change with the temperature is, as is the case with CuNi, small and has practically no

𝜶𝑪𝒖 = −𝟐. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 /𝑲

effect. A negative temperature coefficient results;

The metallic layer resister also has a relatively high absolute resistance at 20 °C. And
the change in the measured temperature range is even lower than for carbon. Thus,

𝜶𝒎𝒆𝒕 → 𝟎
the temperature coefficient approaches zero.

The two NTC and PTC resistors consist of alloys. Depending on their compositions,
great changes in resistance can be realized in a small temperature range. The curves
that are recorded in this experiment can no longer be considered linear. They serve
only to illustrate the behavior of NTC and PTC resistors

𝜶𝑪𝒖 = 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
Literature Values:

𝜶𝑪𝒖𝑵𝒊 = −𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲

Page | 50
𝜶𝑪 = −𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 /𝑲
𝜶𝒎𝒆𝒕 = ± 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 /𝑲
𝜶𝑵𝑻𝑪 = − 𝟔. 𝟏𝟓 % /𝑲
𝜶𝑷𝑻𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎 % /𝑲
The value for PTC is valid in the steepest region of the characteristic line. In
semiconductors the number of charge carriers and the charge carrier density increases
with temperature (charge carrier generation, electron-hole pair formation). From the

𝝈 = 𝒆. 𝒏. 𝝁
law;

Where;
σ = Intrinsic conductivity
e = Elementary charge
n = Charge carrier density
µ = Mobility
One can see that the intrinsic conductivity of the semiconductor thus increases. The
mobility indeed decreases with increasing temperature, but the increase in the charge
carrier density compensates for this effect. A definite drop in resistance is observed;
this allows one to infer that there is a negative temperature coefficient. Through the
calculation with the above-mentioned formula for the temperature dependence,
rearranged for the voltage Up , the following values are obtained.

𝜶𝑺𝒊 = −𝟑. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲

𝜶𝑮𝒆 = −𝟒. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 /𝑲
At low voltages, around 3V, a Zener breakdown occurs in Z diodes. As a result of the
strong electric field, electron hole pairs are spontaneously generated in the inner
electron shells in the barrier-layer zone. Under the influence of the field charge
carrier, they cross the barrier layer. A higher temperature increases the energy of the
bound charge carriers. As a consequence, the Zener effect can occur at lower
voltages. In the Avalanche the charge carriers are accelerated by the electric field to
such a great degree that they in turn release other charge carriers on colliding with
other atoms, which in turn are accelerated. The higher temperature shortens the free
Page | 51
path, so that the voltage must increase with the temperature in order to continue to

𝜶𝒁𝑷𝑫𝟐.𝟕 = −𝟕. 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑲

release charge carriers. From the calculations, the following values result for;

𝜶𝒁𝑷𝑫𝟔.𝟖 = +𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 /𝑲

Procedure :
Place the immersion probe set, which is enclosed in a watertight plastic bag, into the
water bath. The resistance values for the PTC, NTC, metallic film and carbon film
resistors, as well as the Cu and CuNi wire resistors, can be measured directly with the
digital hand multi-meter (circuit 6 diagram, Fig. 5). To do this, connect the multi-
meter to the ground jack, which is connected to all the components, and the jack
located under the symbol corresponding to the respective component. Note the
different resistance values, and plot them as a function of temperature.

In order to measure the conducting-state voltage of the semiconducting diodes,

connect them to a voltage of 10 V. Connect a 4.7Ω resistor in series with the
component. Set a voltage of 10 V on the universal power supply, and adjust the
current limiter to its maximum value. Measure the voltage parallel to the component.
Note the conducting-state voltage corresponding to the respective temperatures. Also
measure the blocking voltage for the Zener and avalanche effects with the set-up
illustrated in Fig. 6. However, the diodes have already been wired in the blocking
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 direction through their placement in the immersion probe set.

Result : Studied Temperature dependent circuits and their analysis

Conclusion:
Temperature-dependent circuits were studied and analyzed. The experiment
demonstrated how resistance and semiconductor characteristics vary with
temperature, confirming theoretical values of temperature coefficients for different
materials and components.

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