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Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht

Chapter 1
Biology: The Study
of Life
Lecture Outline
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 Learning outcomes
1. Define and correctly use scientific terminology in
regards to biological organisms and processes.
2. Explain the process of science and methods of scientific
inquiry, recognizing that natural sciences are based on
common principles and methods.

Outline
1.1 The Characteristics of Life

1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life

1.3 The Process of Science

1.4 Science and the Challenges Facing Society

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 1.1 The Characteristics of Life

Biology is the study of life.

There is great diversity among living
things.
Living things
• are composed of the same chemical elements
as nonliving things.
• obey the same physical and chemical laws
that govern everything in the universe.
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 Diversity of Life

Figure 1.1

Despite diversity, all living things share the

same basic characteristics.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC Earth. (bacteria): Eye of Science/Science Source; (Paramecium): Michael Abbey/Science Source; (morel): Carol Wolfe; (sunflowe r): Medioimages/PunchStock; (whale in Alaska): Image Source/Getty Images 5
 Life Is Organized

The levels of biological organization range from

atoms to the biosphere.
The cell is the basic unit of structure and function
of all living things.
• Unicellular or multicellular
Each level of organization is more complex than
the level preceding it.
• As biological complexity increases, each level acquires
new, emergent properties.

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 Levels of Biological Organization 1

Figure 1.2

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 Levels of Biological Organization 2

Figure 1.2

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 Levels of Biological Organization 3

Figure 1.2

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 Levels of Biological Organization 4

Figure 1.2

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 Levels of Biological Organization 5

Figure 1.2

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 Levels of Biological Organization 6

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 Levels of Biological Organization 7

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Figure 1.2 13
 Levels of Biological Organization 8

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 Levels of Biological Organization 9

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 Levels of Biological Organization 10

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 Levels of Biological Organization 11

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 Levels of Biological Organization 12

Figure 1.2
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 How the Biosphere Is Organized 1
The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and
water where organisms exist.
An ecosystem is a community plus its physical
environment.
A community is a collection of interacting
populations within the same environment.
A population is all the members of a species
within an area.
A species is a group of similar, interbreeding
organisms.
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 How the Biosphere Is Organized 2
An organism is formed when organ systems are
joined together.
Organs work together to form organ systems.
Tissues make up organs.
Similar cells combine together to form tissues.
Molecules join to form larger molecules within a
cell.
Atoms combine to form molecules.
The organization of life begins with atoms.

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 Life Requires Materials and Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Energy is required to maintain organization and conduct
life-sustaining processes such as chemical reactions.
• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell.

The sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all life
on Earth.
• Plants, algae, and some other organisms capture solar energy and
perform photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is a process that converts solar energy into the
chemical energy of carbohydrates.

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 Ecosystems 1
Ecosystems are characterized by chemical cycling
and energy flow.
Chemicals are not used up when organisms die.
• Chemicals move from one population to another in a food chain.
• Example: Chemicals move from producers to consumers to
decomposers.
• As a result of death and decomposition, chemicals are returned to
living plants.

Energy from the sun flows through plants and other

members of the food chain as one population feeds on
another.
• Therefore, there must be a constant input of solar energy.

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 Ecosystems 2

Figure 1.4
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 Living Organisms Maintain Homeostasis
and Respond to Their Environment

Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal conditions

within certain boundaries.
• It is imperative that an organism maintain a state of biological
balance.
• Feedback systems monitor internal conditions and make
adjustments.

Living organisms interact with the environment and

respond to changes in the environment.
• The ability to respond often produces movement.

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 Living Organisms Reproduce
and Develop

All living organisms must reproduce to maintain a

population.
The manner of reproduction varies among different
organisms.
When organisms reproduce, they pass on copies of
their genetic information (genes) to the next
generation.
• Genes determine the characteristics of an organism.
• Genes are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

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Living Organisms Have Adaptations

• An adaptation is any modification that makes an

organism better able to function in a particular
environment.
• The diversity of life exists because over long
periods of time, organisms respond to changing
environments by developing new adaptations.
• Evolution is the change in a population of
organisms over time to become more suited to the
environment.

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 Penguin Adaptations

Figure 1.5
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 1.2 Evolution and the
Classification of Life

The theory of evolution explains the diversity

and unity of life.
• The theory of evolution suggests that all living
things descended from a common ancestor.
• Common descent with modification

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 Natural Selection

Natural selection is the evolutionary mechanism

proposed by Charles Darwin.
Some aspect of the environment selects which traits
are more apt to be passed on to the next generation.
• Individuals with the favorable traits produce the greater
number of offspring that survive and reproduce.

• This increases the frequency of those favorable traits in

population.

Mutations fuel natural selection.

• It introduces variations among members of a population.

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 Selecting for or Against New Traits

Figure 1.6
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 Evolutionary Tree of Life 1

An
evolutionary
tree is like a
family tree. An
evolutionary
tree traces the
ancestry of life
on Earth to a
common
ancestor.

Figure 1.7
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 Organizing Diversity
Taxonomy is the discipline of biology that
identifies, names, and classifies organisms
according to certain rules.
Systematics is the study of evolutionary
relationships between organisms.
Classification categories:
From least inclusive category (species) to most
inclusive category (domain):
• Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
supergroup, and domain

• Each successive category above species includes more types of

organisms than the preceding one.
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 Levels of Classification
Table 1.1 Levels of Classification
Category Human Corn

Domain Eukarya Eukarya

Supergroup* Opisthokonta Archaeplastids
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Phylum Chordata Anthophyta
Class Mammalia Monocotyledones
Order Primates Commelinales
Family Hominidae Poaceae
Genus Homo
Homo Zea
Zea
Species** H. sapiens
H. sapiens Z. mays
Z. mays
*Supergroups are only present in Domain Eukarya
Homo sapiens.
**To specify an organism, you must use the full binomial name, such as Homo sapiens.

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 Domains
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
Domain Archaea
Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in extreme
environments probably similar to the primitive Earth
Domain Bacteria
Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in all environments
including on our skin and in our mouth and large intestine

Eukaryotes: Contain a membrane-bound nucleus.

Domain Eukarya
Contains unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
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 Domain Archaea

Prokaryotic cells of various

shapes

Adaptations to extreme
environments

Absorb or chemosynthesize
food

Unique chemical
Sulfolobus, an archaean characteristics

Figure 1.8

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 Domain Bacteria

Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes

Adaptations to
all environments

Absorb, photosynthesize,
or chemosynthesize food

Unique chemical
characteristics

Escherichia coli, a bacterium

Figure 1.9

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 Domain Eukarya
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi

• Algae, protozoans, slime • Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,

molds, and water molds and ringworms
• Complex single cell • Mostly multicellular filaments
(sometimes filaments, with specialized, complex cells
colonies, or even
multicellular) • Absorb food

• Absorb, photosynthesize,
Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan or ingest food
Amanita, a mushroom

Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia

• Certain algae, mosses, ferns, • Sponges, worms, insects,

conifers, and flowering plants fishes, frogs, turtles,
birds, and mammals
• Multicellular, usually with
specialized tissues, • Multicellular with
containing complex cells specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• Photosynthesize food
• lngest food
Phalaenopsis, orchid, a flowering plant Vulpes, a red fox

Figure 1.10

© McGraw Hill LLC (Paramecium): M. I. Walker/Science Source; (mushroom): Ingram Publishing/Getty Images; (orchid): Emilio Ereza/Pixtal/age fotostock; (fox): Fuse/Getty Images 37
 Kingdoms
Domain Archaea – kingdom designations are
being determined
Domain Bacteria – kingdom designations are
being determined
Domain Eukarya – kingdoms are designated, but
new taxonomic supergroups are being
determined
• Kingdom Protista

• Kingdom Fungi

• Kingdom Plantae

• Kingdom Animalia
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 Scientific Names
Universal
Latin-based
Binomial nomenclature
Two-part name
First word is the genus.
• Always capitalized

Second word is the species designation (or specific epithet).

• Written in lowercase

Both words are italicized.

Examples: Homo sapiens (humans), Zea mays (corn)
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 1.3 The Process of Science
The scientific method is a standard
series of steps used in gaining new
knowledge through research.
The scientific method can be divided into five
steps:
• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Predictions and Experiments
• Data Collection with Statistical Analysis
• Results and Conclusion
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 Flow Diagram for Scientific Method

Figure 1.11
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 Observations and Hypotheses

Observation
• Scientists use their senses to gather
information about a phenomenon or
natural event.
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for what
was observed.
• An example is the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin.

It is developed through inductive reasoning.

It is testable.
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 Predictions and Experiments 1

An experiment is a series of procedures

designed to test a hypothesis.
• It utilizes deductive reasoning to make a prediction
or expected outcome.

The manner in which a scientist conducts an

experiment is called the experimental design.
• A good experimental design ensures that the
scientist is examining the contribution of a specific
variable, called the experimental (independent)
variable, to the observation.
• The experimental variable is the factor being tested.

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 Predictions and Experiments 2
A test group is exposed to the experimental variable.
A control group goes through all aspects of the
experiment but is not exposed to the experimental
variable.
If the control and test groups show the same results,
the hypothesis is not supported.
The data are the results of an experiment.
• Results should be observable and objective.
• Tables and graphs are two possible formats for data.

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 Presenting and Analyzing Data
Statistical Data
Data are analyzed using statistics.
Measures of variation
• Standard error: How far off the average of the
data is

Statistical Significance
Probability value (p)
• Less than 5% is acceptable (p < 0.05)
• The lower the p value, the greater the confidence
in the results
• Not due to chance 'alone
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 Presentation of Scientific Data

Figure 1.12

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 Conclusions and Peer Review

The data are interpreted to determine whether the

hypothesis is supported or not.
• If prediction happens, hypothesis is supported

• If not, hypothesis is rejected

Findings are reported in scientific journals.

Peers review the findings.
Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or
dismiss the published findings.

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 Scientific Publications

Figure 1.13

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 Scientific Theory Versus Law

Scientific Theory:
• Concepts that join together two or more well-
supported and related hypotheses
• Supported by broad range of observations,
experiments, and data

Scientific Principle / Law:

• Widely accepted set of theories
• No serious challenges to validity

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 Basic Theories of Biology

Theory Concept
Cell All organisms are composed of cells, and new
cells come only from preexisting cells.

Homeostasis The internal environment of an organism

stays relatively constant—within a range that
is protective of life.
Evolution All living organisms have a common ancestor,
but each is adapted to a particular way of life.

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 1.4 Science and the Challenges
Facing Society

Science is a systematic way of acquiring

knowledge about the natural world.
Technology is the application of scientific
knowledge to the interests of humans.
Examples: cell phone, new drug, others?

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 Climate Change
Climate change refers to changes in the normal
cycles of the Earth’s climate attributable to human
activities
Due to imbalance in chemical cycling of carbon
More carbon is being released than removed.
• Burning of fossil fuels
• Destruction of forests and replacement by farmland

Increase in CO2 causes temperature increases, called

global warming.
• Produced by greenhouse effect
• Global warming is changing Earth’s ecosystems.
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 Biodiversity and Habitat Loss
Biodiversity is the total number and relative
abundance of species, the variability of their
genes, and the different ecosystems in which
they live.
Estimated to be as high as 8.7 million species
• Approximately 2.3 million of which named and identified

Extinction is the death of the last member of a

species or larger classification category.
• Estimated to be losing hundreds of species every year
due to human activities
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 Biologically Diverse Ecosystems Are
in Danger
Tropical rain forests and coral reef
ecosystems are home to many organisms.
Both ecosystems are threatened by
human activities.
The canopy of the tropical rain forest
supports orchids, insects, and monkeys,
among other organisms.
Coral reefs provide habitats for jellyfish,
sponges, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles,
moray eels, and fishes.
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 Destruction of Healthy Ecosystems
Has Unintended Effects
Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for:
• Food
• Medicines
• Raw materials

Draining of wetlands of Mississippi and Ohio Rivers:

• Worsened flooding
• Ruined farmland
Destruction of South American rain forests:
• Killed species
• Decreased availability of lumber
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 Emerging Diseases
Over the past decade several new diseases have
been in the news:
• H5N1
• H7N9
• SARS
• MERS
• SARS-CoV-2
Where do emerging diseases come from?
• New or increased exposure to insects or animals
• Changes in behavior
• Use of technology (Legionnaires’ disease)
• Globalization
• Pathogens mutating and changing hosts (avian flu)
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