Comprehensive English Grammar Review 3

UNIT ONE
PHRASES AND CLAUSES

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words that is incomplete in thought and lacks a subject and/or a
predicate. It gives further meaning by either naming, modifying, or explaining a word or a group
of words in a sentence.

There are several kinds of phrases.

I. Noun Phrases
A noun phrase has at least one noun that is modified by a determiner and/or another
modifier or modifiers. This may also be found before or after a verb.

e.g. Before the verb: My diamond bracelets are in the vault.

After the verb: They watched a romantic movie.

In the first example, the noun phrase “My diamond bracelets” is placed before the verb
are, therefore functioning as the complete subject in the sentence. It can be ordered as such:

My diamond bracelets
determiner adjective noun

II. Verb Phrases

A verb phrase is a verb with another word or words, such as helping verbs, that indicate
tense, mood, or person.

e.g. will have gone, can dance, did eat, go up

III. Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and always has an object (a noun or a
pronoun) after it. It has two classifications.

A. The prepositional adjective phrase describes the noun or pronoun in a sentence

by telling its location or its association with the modified word.

e.g. The bag with red beads is mine.

I see the rays of the sun beyond the horizon.
My mother bought the one near the blue blouse.

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In the first example, the phrase with red beads describes the noun bag while, in the
second, beyond the horizon modifies rays. On the other hand, in the third example,
the phrase near the blue blouse describes the pronoun one.

B. The prepositional adverb phrase describes a verb, an adjective, or another

adverb.

e.g. The prima ballerina danced with all grace.

She is the most intelligent among them.
We left early in the morning.

In the first example, the phrase with all grace tells how the prima ballerina danced,
therefore describing the verb danced. In the second example, among them describes
how intelligent the girl is. Therefore, she is the most intelligent compared to all others.
Finally, in the third, the phrase in the morning describes the adverb early because it
tells “how early” is early. Therefore, it is more specific to say that the action was done
“early in the morning,” not just “early.”

IV. Appositive Phrases

An appositive phrase is a noun phrase that renames, identifies, or explains the noun or
the pronoun placed before it. It adds more information or details to the said noun or pronoun.

e.g. Melba, the tall and thin girl, is also a smart and dedicated student.
I was already given my schedule, a better one.
We gave Remily a gift, a bunch of red roses, when she left to go abroad.

V. Verbal Phrases
A verbal is a verb form which functions either as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It may
be a phrase if words are added to it. There are three categories.

A. Participial Phrases
This phrase starts with a present participle or a past participle and functions
as an adjective.

e.g. The girl sleeping on the bench is our neighbor.

Edith’s talent, hidden all these years, was finally known.

The participial phrase sleeping on the bench functions as an adjective because it

describes the noun girl. It answers the question “What kind of girl?” Similarly, in the
second example, hidden all these years describes talent and answers the question
“What kind of talent?”

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B. Gerund Phrases
Gerunds, or verbs with –ing, become gerund phrases when words are added
to them. Gerund phrases, like gerunds, function as nouns.

e.g. Eating on time will prevent ulcer.

The thing I taught Fely this year was driving automatic cars.

In the first example, the phrase Eating on time functions as a noun. Specifically, it is
the subject or the one being talked about in the sentence. Also, it answers the
question “What will prevent ulcer?” (Nouns answers What questions.) Similarly, the
phrase driving automatic cars in the second example answers the question “What is
the thing I taught Fely this year?” It is the predicate in the sentence.

C. Infinitive Phrases
Infinitives, which are formed by adding “to” before a verb, become infinitive
phrases when words are added to them. Infinitive phrases, like infinitives, function as
nouns, as adjectives, or as adverbs.

e.g. To eat on time will prevent ulcer.

The person to consult about the book is my publisher.
It is practical to leave early in the morning for an important appointment.

In the first example, the infinitive phrase To eat on time functions as a noun because
it is the subject answering the question “What will prevent ulcer?” On the other hand,
in the second example, the infinitive phrase to consult about the book describes the
noun person. This phrase functions as an adjective. Finally, to leave early in the
morning, in the third example, functions as an adverb which describes the adjective
practical.

VI. Infinitives With and Without ‘to’

Form
The infinitive of a verb has two forms: the to-infinitive and the infinitive without to. The
to-form consists of “to” plus the base form of the verb:

e.g. I want to speak to you.

We came here to work, not to play.

The form without to consists of the base form of the verb:

e.g. She made us wait for half an hour.

John lets the dog sleep on the sofa.

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A. To-infinitive
We use the to-infinitive after a number of common main verbs. These include:

agree hate plan

aim help prefer
arrange hope prepare
ask intend pretend
begin learn promise
choose like propose
claim long refuse
continue love remember
decide manage try
demand mean want
fail need wish
forget offer

e.g. We arranged to see the bank manager and applied for a loan.
Mrs. Harding asked us to call in on our way home.
Did you remember to post the letter to your mother?

Some of these verbs are also often followed by -ing.

B. Infinitive without to
We use the infinitive without to after modal verbs can, could, may, might, will,
shall, would, should, and must:

We also use the infinitive without to after let, make, dare, and (optionally) help:

e.g. He lets us use some of his land to grow vegetables.

You can’t make a cat do anything it doesn’t want to do.
I dared not join.
I just want to help you (to) understand the situation better.

Typical error

We don’t use the infinitive (with or without to) after prepositions:

e.g. Lemon juice is useful for cleaning stained surfaces in the kitchen.

Not: … is useful for clean … or … for to clean …

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CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb.

There are two main kinds of clauses.

I. Independent or Main Clause

A clause is independent when it has a complete meaning on its own. In other words, an
independent or main clause is a simple sentence.

e.g. Siony eats her food slowly.

I could not see because he was in front of me.

II. Dependent or Subordinate Clause

A clause is dependent when it is incomplete by itself and needs to be attached to an
independent or main clause to make sense. It starts with a subordinating conjunction.

e.g. I could not see because he was in front of me.

Although it was not obvious, Ronnie was truly nervous when he gave the
presentation.

There are three different kinds of dependent or subordinate clauses.

A. The Noun Clause

This clause begins with the relative pronoun that, which, whichever, whom,
whomever, who, whoever, whose, whosoever, the four Ws (what, when, where and
why), how, if, or whether. Noun clauses may be found in the usual position of nouns
in a sentence.

The table below shows how noun clauses are used.

Function Examples
subject Whether he agrees or not does not matter.
direct object I don’t understand whatever it is on your mind.
indirect object Rochelle gave whoever sent her flowers a note.
predicate noun The question is why you left early.
object of the preposition Give the promotion to whoever deserves it.
appositive He gave his demand, that he be left alone.

B. The Adjective Clause

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An adjective clause generally describes a noun or a pronoun. This clause may

start with a relative pronoun (that, which, whom, who, or whose) and comes after
the word it describes.

e.g. The guy who made faces at me is my rude neighbor.

The book I bought is cheap.

The table below shows how adjective clauses are used. As modifiers of nouns or
pronouns, they describe subjects, direct objects, objects of the preposition, predicate
nominatives, etc.

Word Described Examples

subject The movie which we watched is so funny.
direct objective I found the book that my friend gave me.
object of the preposition She gave the letter to her friend who is leaving next week.
predicate nominative That is my nephew whom I took to the movie house last Friday.
gerund Working without taking a break is stressful.
infinitive To work without taking a break is stressful.

Essential Clauses and Nonessential Clauses

A. Essential Clause [Restrictive Clause or Defining Relative Clause]

It is clause that is necessary to make the meaning of a sentence clear. Don’t use
comma to set off essential clauses.
It provides essential information about the word, usually noun, it modifies and is
necessary to identify such word. Omitting a restrictive essential clause could change the
meaning of the sentence.

Example: The girl who is standing beside the coach is our best swimmer.

The adjective clause “who is standing beside the coach” is essential to the
meaning of the sentence. The clause tells which girl is the best swimmer.

B. Nonessential Clause [Nonrestrictive Clause or Non-defining Relative Clause]

It is a clause that is not necessary to make the meaning of a sentence clear. Use
commas to set off nonessential clauses.
It provides additional, non-essential information about the word (noun) it
modifies. The information in a nonessential clause can be removed without changing the
core or main meaning of the sentence.

Example: Melissa, who is standing beside the coach, is our best swimmer.

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In the example, the adjective clause is set off with commas. The clause is
nonessential, or not necessary to identify which swimmer the writer means. The clause
simply gives additional information about the noun it modifies.

Other examples:

Essential Clauses

1. Sittie gave me the cupcake that was red velvet flavored.

2. The woman who is wearing a red dress is my sister.
3. German is a language which I have found hard to learn.

Nonessential Clauses

1. Sittie gave me a cupcake, which was red velvet flavored.

2. Sir Chuy, whose birthday is on February 28, plans to lay on a big party.
3. My friend, who is a bank teller, lives in the city.

The relative adverbs WHERE, WHEN, and WHY can also be used to introduce
adjective clause in both formal and informal contexts.

While they are primarily used as adverbs to indicate place, time, and reason,
respectively, they can function as relative adverbs to introduce adjective clauses that
provide additional information about the word (noun) they modify.

Location Clause

Informal: This is the park where we often have picnics.

Formal: This is the park at which we often have picnics.

Informal: The house where she lives is beautiful.

Formal: The house in which she lives is beautiful.

Time Clause

Informal: This is the day when we will meet.

Formal: This is the day on which we will meet.

Reason Clause

Informal: The reason why he resigned is unclear.

Formal: The reason for which he reassigned is unclear.

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Informal: I understand the reason why she left.

Formal: I understand the reason for which she left.

Context Clause

Informal: The study, where various factors were considered, provided valuable
insights.
Formal: The study, in which various factors were considered, provided valuable
insights.

C. The Adverb Clause (also called Adverbial Clause)

Adverb clause describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. This clause
starts with a subordinate conjunction.

The table below shows how adverb clauses are used.

Word Described Examples

verb I turned on the lights when I heard a loud noise.
adjective Gabby is still sleepy although she slept for ten hours.
adverb Sam came early before the sun even rose.
participle Kiko, working since he was just 16, opened his own business.
infinitive Fixing the plumbing was so difficult to do that I called the
plumber immediately.

The lF Clause

Here are the several uses of the If Clause:

1. if the situation has the possibility to be true

e.g. If you are good at this, let others know.

If you had been careful, then why did this happen?

2. in “if it were not for” which is an expression that signals attribution to a significant person
or thing

e.g. If it were not for Merle, I would not make it here.

3. in conditionals

Take note that the tense of the verb used has.to be consistent.

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e.g. If you do this, you will be famous for sure. [present]

If you did this, you would be famous for sure. [past]
If you had done this, you would have been famous. [perfect]

The modals were, had, and should are also used.

e.g. If I were there, they would have known what to do.

If Frannie had declined the invitation, Gigi would not have come too.
If it should be possible that you stay here, please do.

These modals also create variety in sentençe arrangement by canceling the word "if" and
fronting the modals.

e.g. Were I there, they would have known what to do.

Had Frannie declined the invitation, Gigi would have come too.
Should it be possible that you stay here, please do.

FOUR (4) TYPES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

• There are four types of conditional sentences.

• It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different types, because they
express varying meanings.
• Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.
• Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.
• Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical situations
and their consequences. We use them to communicate that something is true or happens
only if something else is true or happens—that is, only under a certain condition.
Complete conditional sentences contain a conditional clause (often referred to as the if-
clause) and the consequence. Consider the following sentences:

e.g. If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.

I would travel around the world if I won the lottery.
When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

What are the different types of conditional sentences?

There are four different types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a
different degree of probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain
circumstances.

1. Zero conditional sentences

2. First conditional sentences

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3. Second conditional sentences

4. Third conditional sentences

Let’s look at each of these types of conditional sentences in more detail.

How to use zero conditional sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one thing always
causes another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general truth rather than
a specific instance of something. Consider the following examples:

e.g. If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

There are a couple of things to take note of in the above sentences using the zero
conditional. First, when using the zero conditional, the correct tense in both clauses is the simple
present tense. A common mistake is to use the simple future tense.

e.g. When people smoke cigarettes, their health will suffer.

Second, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these zero
conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will be the same any time the condition is in
place; there’s no difference in meaning for if and when to communicate.

How to use first conditional sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely
(but not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

e.g. If you rest, you will feel better.

If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and the simple future tense in
the main clause—the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we indicate that under
a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific result will likely happen in the future.
Examine some of the common mistakes people make using the first conditional structure:

e.g. If you will rest, you will feel better. [incorrect]

If you rest, you will feel better. [correct]

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

e.g. If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it. [incorrect]
If you set your mind to a goal, you will eventually achieve it. [correct]

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Explanation: Use the zero conditional (simple present + simple present) only when a
certain result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first conditional (simple present + simple
future).

How to use second conditional sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely
unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the examples below:

e.g. If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Notice that the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple
past tense in the if-clause and a modal auxiliary verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the
main clause (the one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely outcome). The following sentences
illustrate a couple of the common mistakes people make when using the second conditional:

e.g. If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon. [incorrect]

If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon. [correct]

Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in the if-
clause.

e.g. If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more. [incorrect]
If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more. [correct]

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the second
conditional to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually happen.

How to use third conditional sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be
different if something different had happened in the past. Look at the following examples:

e.g. If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough but did not actually happen
in the past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early but did not. The speaker
in the second sentence was capable of cleaning the house but did not. These are both conditions
that were likely but (regrettably, in these cases) did not happen.

Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past
participle) in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, should, etc.) + have + past
participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have happened.

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Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

e.g. If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
[incorrect]
If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
[correct]

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb in the if-
clause.

e.g. If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies. [incorrect]

If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies. [correct]

Explanation: The third conditional expresses a situation that could have happened in the
past only if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use the modal auxiliary verb + have
+ the past participle.

Exceptions and special cases when using conditional sentences

As with most topics in the English language, conditional sentences often present special
cases in which unique rules must be applied.

Use of the simple future in the if-clause

Generally speaking, the simple future should be used only in the main clause. One
exception is when the action in the if-clause will take place after the action in the main clause.
For example, consider the following sentence:

e.g. If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple tonight.

The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the headache, which will take place only
after the speaker takes them later that night.

Were to in the if-clause

The verb phrase “were to” is sometimes used in conditional sentences when the likely or
unlikely result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this case, were to is used to place emphasis
on this potential outcome. Consider these sentences:

e.g. If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.

If she were to be late again, she would have to have a conference with the
manager.
If the rent were to have been a penny more, they would not have been able to
pay it.

Note that the emphatic were to can be used to describe hypothetical scenarios in the
present, future, or past.

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Punctuating conditional sentences

Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences, punctuating them properly is really
simple!

Here’s how it works:

Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

e.g. If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.

If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no punctuation is necessary.

e.g. I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.

UNIT TWO
SENTENCES
A sentence is a group of words that has a complete and independent thought and has a
subject and a predicate. Also, it is always composed of at least one independent clause.

The sentence has two main parts.

I. The Subject
The subject is the doer of the action or the one being talked about in the sentence. AlI
subjects are either nouns, pronouns, gerunds, infinitives, or clauses and are placed either
before or after the verb.

e.g. Jane went home late.

[The subject Jane is the doer of the action went.]

Jane is the smartest student in our class.

[The subịect Jane is the one being talked about in the sentence.]

A. Complete Subjects and Simple Subjects

The complete subject is a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words which is the doer
or the one being talked about in the sentence. It may include modifiers. On the other
hand, the simple subject is the important noun, pronoun, or group of words that cannot
be taken out of the complete subject.

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e.g. The new teacher taught English to foreigners.

Take note of the complete subject and simple subject of the sample sentence given.
Complete Subject: The new teacher
Simple Subject: teacher

Here is another example.

e.g. What you told me is interesting.

Complete Subject: What you told me

Simple Subject: What you told me

B. Compound Subjects
A compound subject is composed of two or more subjects that have the
same verb. The subjects are joined by the coordinating conjunction “and” or “or.”

e.g. Ann and her young daughter left the house early.

Complete Compound Subject: Ann and her young daughter

Simple Compound Subject: Ann, daughter

C. Other Kinds of Subjects

1. Dummy subject - the subject with no concrete reference

e.g. It is raining hard outside!

It is dark inside the room.

2. Hidden subject - the subject before the verb in imperative sentences

e.g. (You) Keep up the good work!

(You) Please, pass the salt.

II. The Predicate

The predicate is the information about the subject. It is composed of a group of words
that states what the subject does or is.

e.g. Jane went home late.

[The predicate went home late is what the subject Jane did.]

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Jane is the smartest student in our class.

[The predicate is the smartest student in our class is what the subject
Jane is.]

A. Complete Predicates and Simple Predicates

The complete predicate is the verb or verb phrase, as well as any modifiers and/or
complements that tell what the complete subject does or is. On the other hand, the simple
predicate is the important verb or verb phrase in the sentence. It cannot be taken out of
the complete predicate.

e.g. The new teacher taught English to foreigners.

Complete Predicate: taught English to foreigners

Simple Predicate: taught

Here is another example.

e.g. My teacher gave us a quiz on grammar and reading comprehension.

Complete Predicate: gave us a quiz on grammar and reading

comprehension
Simple Predicate: gave

B. Compound Predicates
A compound predicate is composed of two or more verbs that have the same
subject. The verbs are joined by a coordinating conjunction. In the example below, these
are joined by the coordinating conjunction but.

e.g. Ann left the house early but arrived late for work.

Complete Predicate: left the house early but arrived late for
work
Simple Predicate: left, arrived

KINDS OF SENTENCES

Different kinds of sentences have different purposes. A sentence can make a statement,
ask a question, or give a command. A sentence can also express strong feeling. All sentences
begin with a capital letter and end with a punctuation mark. The punctuation mark depends on
the purpose of the sentence.

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1. Declarative Sentence. — It makes a statement. It ends with a period.

e.g. Edgar Allan Poe wrote suspenseful short stories.

2. Interrogative Sentence. — It asks a question. It ends with a question mark.

e.g. Did Poe also write poetry?

3. Imperative Sentence. — It gives a command or makes a request. It ends with a period.

e.g. Read “The Pit and the Pendulum.”

4. Exclamatory Sentence. —It expresses strong feeling. It ends with an exclamation point.

e.g. What a great writer Poe was!

How I enjoy his stories!

Turning Declarative Sentences into Interrogative Sentences

Assertive sentences, also called declarative sentences, are those sentences that state a
general idea or thought, a habitual action, a scientific fact or a universal truth. Interrogative
sentences, on the other hand, are questions that are intended to find out some piece of
information.

Transforming a declarative sentence into an interrogative sentence typically involves

reordering words and, in some cases, adding auxiliary verbs. Here are the general steps with
examples:

1. Identify the auxiliary verb (if present) and move it to the beginning:
Declarative: "She is coming to the party."
Interrogative: "Is she coming to the party?"

2. If there is no auxiliary verb, add an appropriate one (usually "do," "does," or "did") and
place it at the beginning:
Declarative: "They like pizza."
Interrogative: "Do they like pizza?"

3. Change the punctuation to a question mark:

Declarative: "It will rain tomorrow."
Interrogative: "Will it rain tomorrow?"

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4. For sentences with modals (can, will, must, etc.), move the modal to the beginning:
Declarative: "He can swim well."
Interrogative: "Can he swim well?"

5. For sentences with "to be" as the main verb, invert the subject and the verb:
Declarative: "She is a doctor."
Interrogative: "Is she a doctor?"

Other Examples:

Declarative: "They are going to the concert."

Interrogative: "Are they going to the concert?"

Declarative: "You speak French."

Interrogative: "Do you speak French?"

Declarative: "She has finished her homework."

Interrogative: "Has she finished her homework?"

Declarative: "The movie starts at 7 PM."

Interrogative: "Does the movie start at 7 PM?"

By following these steps, you can transform most declarative sentences into interrogative
sentences

Open-Ended Questions and Question Words

One of the first steps to changing a sentence into an interrogative sentence is to begin
each sentence with a question word, then identify the verb and the subject.

To convert the sentence into an interrogative sentence, your challenge is to identify which
question word best suits the direct question you would like to ask. Some other words that are
commonly used for open-ended questions are who, whom, whose, what, which, why, how,
where, and when. These form the foundation of the interrogative sentence.

Examples:

Who is coming to the party tonight?

Whom did you invite to the wedding?
Whose phone is ringing?
What is your favorite movie?
Which restaurant did you choose for dinner?
Why did you miss the meeting yesterday?

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How did you learn to speak French fluently?

Where is the nearest bus stop?
When will the new product be released?

YES/NO Interrogative Sentences

Another way to identify an interrogative sentence is through the YES/NO method. These
questions need a “yes” or “no” to the direct question. They either begin with a verb or a helping
verb.

Examples:

Is it going to rain today?

Are you sick?
Was the movie good?
Were you in my class this morning?
Will you help me with this project?
Has the meeting started?
Have you ever been to Paris?
Had the package been delivered?
Does she work here?
Do you like the coffee?
Did you eat the cookies from the cookie jar?
Can you drive a car?
Could you help me with this?
Will you be attending the conference?
Would you like some tea?
Shall I open the window?
Should I bring an umbrella?
May I use your phone?
Might she join us later?

Interrogative Sentence: “Either/Or” Sentences

An interrogative question may also offer one or more choices within the structured
framing of the sentence. Similar to the Yes/No, these also begin with a verb/ helping verb.

Examples:

Would you like McDonald’s or Jollibee for dinner?

Do you think Liverpool or Arsenal will win this year?
Are you hungry or thirsty?

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Is your mother going to Malaysia or Indonesia this year?

Question Tagging the Declarative to Make an Interrogative Sentence

When a sentence reads as a statement, it is easier to add a tag question to its end than a
re-write. The declarative sentence is a statement that follows the simple sentence structure.
However, adding a simple comma to the end of the declarative has the power to change it into
an interrogative sentence.

For examples:

She is an excellent chef. [declarative]

She is an excellent chef, isn’t she? [interrogative]

Clean your room [declarative]

Clean your room, won’t you? [interrogative]

This is your pen. [declarative]

This is your pen, isn’t it? [interrogative]

No one read the memorandum. [declarative]

No one read the memorandum, did they? [interrogative]

You think you know everything about science. [declarative]

You think you know everything about science, don’t you? [interrogative]

Indirect Questions Are Not Interrogative Sentences

A declarative sentence is the most common form of the four sentences. Whereas the
interrogative sentence forms a direct question, the declarative sentence forms a statement and
an indirect question. It is important not to confuse a direct and indirect question. The direct
question is the interrogative sentence, and the indirect question is the declarative.

For example:

“Are you hungry?” is an example of an interrogative and direct question, whereas “She asked
me if I was hungry.” is an example of a declarative and indirect question.

Remember that the interrogative sentence as a direct question is always followed by a

question mark, whereas the indirect question is concluded by a full-stop (period)

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Conclusion

It is essential to note that when converting a sentence into an interrogative sentence, the
main aim is to get the most straightforward answers to your direct questions. The most
important elements that make up the successful interrogative sentence are a question word +
verb+ subject + question mark.

Complements
A complement is a word or a group of words added to predicates to complete or to add
meaning.

Some sentences are complete by having only a subject and a verb.

e.g. Jane sang.

But some have additional words like modifiers.

e.g. The young boy studied hard.

However, many other sentences are still incomplete by having only a subject and a verb,
or a subject, a verb, and modifiers. To complete their meaning, one should add complements.

Incomplete Complete
Jane gave. (Jane gave what to whom?) Jane gave me a cake.
The young boy is. (The young boy is what?) The young boy is smart.

There are five different kinds of complements. The first three, direct objects, indirect
objects, and objective complements are found in sentences with transitive verbs. The other two,
predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives, often called subjective complements, are found
with linking verbs.

I. Direct Objects
A direct object is a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words which receives the action of
a transitive verb. It answers the question What? or Whom? after an action verb.

e.g. Jane made a cake for her sister.

[Jane made what? a cake]

The young boy called his mother at the office.

[The young boy called whom? his mother]

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II. Indirect Objects

An indirect object is a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words that names the person or
the thing to whom/which something is given or to whom/which something is done for. It
receives a direct object and answers the question To/For whom? or To/For what? after an
action verb.

e.g. Jane made her sister a cake.

[Jane made a cake for whom? her sister]

The young boy taught his dog new tricks.

[The young boy taught new tricks to what? his dog]

Indirect objects usually appear with verbs such as ask, bring, buy, give, lend, make,
promise, show, teach, tell, and write.

III. Objective Complements

An objective complement is a noun or an adjective that comes with a direct object
and either describes or renames it. To know whether a word is an objective complement, one
could say the verb and direct object, and then ask What?

e.g. Jane made her sister happy.

[Jane made her sister what? happy]

The adjective happy is the objective complement which describes the direct object
sister.

The young boy called his mother his inspiration.

[The young man called his mother what? his inspiration]

The noun inspiration is the objective complement which renames the direct object
mother.

Objective complements may appear with verbs such as appoint, call, consider,
declare, elect, judge, label, make, name, and select.

IV. Predicate Nominatives

A predicate nominative is a noun (also called a predicate noun) or pronoun that
comes after a linking verb and either renames, explains, or identifies the subject of a
sentence.
e.g. Jane is a chef.
The chef is she.

In the first example, the predicate nominative chef renames the subject Jane. This is
also true with the second example, only the predicate nominative here is the pronoun she.

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V. Predicate Adjectives
A predicate adjective comes after a linking verb and describes the subject of a
sentence.

e.g. Jane is happy.

The young boy looks smart.

In the first example, the predicate adjective happy describes the subject Jane. In the
second, smart describes the subject boy.

BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

Several word orders in sentences are used in writing and speaking. The different parts of
the sentence discussed in this unit are the components of these patterns. These patterns are:

1. S-IV (Subject — Intransitive Verb)

e.g. James and Ann danced.

S IV

The doctor left already.

S IV

2. S-TV-DO (Subject — Transitive Verb ― Direct Object)

e.g. James bought a new car.

S TV DO

The doctor left the building already.

S TV DO

3. S-TV-IO-DO (Subject — Transitive Verb ― Indirect Object ― Direct Object)

e.g. James bought his brother a new car.

S TV IO DO

The doctor gave me free medicine.

S TV IO DO

4. S-TV-DO-OC (Subject — Transitive Verb ― Direct Object ― Objective Complement)

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e.g. James made his brother happy because of the car.

S TV DO OC

I consider the doctor a generous man.

S TV DO OC

5. S-LV-PN (Subject — Linking Verb — Predicate Nominative)

e.g. James is a wonderful brother.

S LV PN

The doctor is an expert.

S LV PN

6. S-LV-PA (Subject — Linking Verb — Predicate Adjective)

e.g. James sounds wonderful.

S LV PA

The doctor is generous.

S LV PA

BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURES

I. Simple Sentence: Subject + Verb (S + V)
The simple sentence is composed of a single independent clause. This means that it
consists of one or more subjects one or more verbs.

Examples
One subject and The bird built a nest made of twigs and leaves
one verb for its young.
One subject and The actress cried and laughed at the same time.
two verbs
Two subjects and Pam and Tony were given awards by the school
one verb principal.

Follow (S + V) Rule. For a sentence to be classified as a simple sentence, it must have

at least one subject (S) and one verb (V). Moreover, it must have a complete thought. A simple
sentence is also an independent clause.

II. Compound Sentence: Independent Clause + Independent Clause (I + I)

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The compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined by a

coordinating conjunction. Therefore, two or more simple sentences put together can make
up a compound sentence.

Examples
Two independent She dictated, and I typed.
clauses
(The coordinating conjunction and joins the two
independent clauses.)
Three independent The meal was expensive, but it was spoiled, so I
clauses threw it.

(The coordinating conjunctions but and so join

the three independent clauses.)

Follow the (I + I) Rule. For a sentence to be classified as a compound sentence, it must

have at least two independent clauses combined by a coordinating conjunction.

III. Complex Sentence: Independent Clause + Dependent Clause (I + D)

The complex sentence contains one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses.

An independent clause is also known as a simple sentence. In this case, this clause
follows the (S + V) Rule as well. Furthermore, take note that a dependent clause always has
a subordinating conjunction.

Example 1:

Independent Clause: He went abroad

+
Dependent Clause: because he wanted to earn money
+
Phrase (optional): for his family
=
Complex: He went abroad because he wanted to earn money for his
family.

Example 2:

Independent Clause The school (which was built ten years ago)
(+ Dependent Clause): was already renovated
+
Dependent Clause: when I saw it
=

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Complex: The school which was built ten years ago was already
renovated when I saw it.

Follow the (I + D) Rule. For a sentence to be classified as a complex sentence, it

must have at least one independent clause (also known as a simple sentence) and one
dependent clause.

IV. Compound Complex Sentence: Independent Clause + Independent Clause +

Dependent Clause (I + I + D)
The compound complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and
one or more dependent clauses.

Example 1:

Independent Clause: We can talk about anything

+
(coordinating conjunction) and
+
Independent Clause: we will go anywhere
+
Dependent Clause: just as long as we are together
=
Compound Complex: We can talk about anything and we will go anywhere just
as long as we are together.

The coordinating conjunction and joins the two independent clauses in the sentence.
The subordinating conjunction as long as is used in the dependent clause.

Follow (I + I + D) Rule. For a sentence to be classified as a compound complex

sentence, it must have at least two independent clauses and one dependent clause.

In Example 2 below, the coordinating conjunction but joins the two independent
clauses in the sentence. On the other hand, the subordinating conjunction Whenever is used
in the dependent clause.

Example 2:

Dependent Clause: Whenever afternoon comes

+
Independent Clause: most employees chat in the Internet and write e-mail
+
(coordinating conjunction) but
+
Independent Clause: others prefer to eat their snack

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=
Compound Complex: Whenever afternoon comes, most employees chat in the
Internet and write e-mail, but others prefer to eat their
snack.

Now look at the examples below. In Example 3, the coordinating conjunction yet joins
the two independent clauses in the sentence. On the other hand, the subordinating
conjunction which is used in the dependent clause. In Example 4, there are two independent
clauses, each having its own dependent clause. In the first, the dependent clause uses the
subordinating conjunction while whereas the second uses because. The coordinating
conjunction but connects the two independent clauses.

Example 3:

Independent Clause The school (which was built ten years ago) was very
popular
(+Dependent Clause):
+
(coordinating conjunction) yet
+
Independent Clause: I saw it torn down
=
Compound Complex: The school, which was built ten years ago, was very
popular, yet I saw it torn down.

Example 4:

Independent Clause I danced (while he sang)

(+Dependent Clause):
+
(coordinating conjunction) but
+
Independent Clause they won (because they also played the piano)
(+Dependent Clause):
=
Compound Complex: I danced while he sang, but they won because they also
played the piano.

Now take note of the similarities of all given examples of compound complex
sentences. They all have at least two independent clauses and one dependent clause. All of
them follow the (I + I + D) Rule.

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SENTENCE ERRORS

I. Run-ons
A run-on is composed of two or more independent clauses joined together in a
sentence without correct punctuation or conjunction.

Examples:

1. Sarah wrote novels she wrote essays.

2. Sarah wrote novels, she wrote essays.

A run-on can be corrected by using a conjunction or a punctuation to separate its two

or more complete and independent ideas.

Examples:

1. Sarah wrote novels. She wrote essays.

[In here, a period is used to separate the two independent clauses.]

2. Sarah wrote novels, and she wrote essays.

[In here, two independent clauses are joined together by the use of a
conjunction.]

II. Fragments
A fragment is a phrase or a group of words that needs a subject and/or a verb to make
it a complete and independent idea. It may also be a dependent clause that must be attached
to an independent clause to give it meaning.

Notice how a fragment can be corrected or can be made into a sentence.

Fragment Problem Sentence

The poems It is a noun phrase that may be The poems were

used as a subject or a part of a written by Edgar Allan
predicate. Poe.

Was written It is a verb phrase that lacks The book was written
a subject. a year ago.

Of meaning It is a prepositional phrase that His poems contain

lacks a subject and a predicate. many layers of
meaning.

Learning how to sing These two are gerund phrase and Learning how to sing

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To dance the waltz infinitive phrase respectively that is easy.

may be used as subjects or part He wants to dance
of predicate. the waltz with her.

Because he is studying It is a dependent clause that needs You have to be quiet

to be attached to an independent because he is
clause in order to have a complete studying.
thought or idea.

A fragment can be corrected by adding a complete subject and/or a complete

predicate to it.

UNIT THREE
RULES OF CAPITALIZATION
Through capital letters, it is easy to know the important parts of the sentence that need
to emphasized.

To capitalize is to use a capital letter at the start of a word.

Capitalizing Sentences, Quotations, and Letter Parts

A capital letter marks the beginning of a sentence. A capital letter also marks the
beginning of a direct quotation and the salutation and the closing of a letter.

Rule 1. Capitalize the first word of every sentence.

Example Many people are afraid of the pandemic.

Rule 2. Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation that is a complete sentence. A direct
quotation gives a speaker’s exact words.
Example John said, “One of those people was Paul.”

Rule 3. When a direct quotation is interrupted by explanatory words, such as she said, don’t begin
the second part of the direct quotation with a capital letter.

Example “I read a famous poem,” he said, “about Annabelle.”

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When the second part of a direct quotation is a new sentence, put a period after the
explanatory words and begin the second part of the quotation with a capital letter.

Example “I know the poem,” said Sarah. “My class read it last week.”

Rule 4. Don’t capitalize an indirect quotation. An indirect quotation does not repeat a person’s
exact words and should not be enclosed in quotation marks. An indirect quotation often
introduced by the word “that.”

Examples The teacher said that the poem was written by Edgar.
The teacher said the poem was written by Edgar.

Rule 5. Capitalize the first word in the salutation and the closing of a letter. Capitalize the title
and the name of the person addressed.

Examples Dear Mrs. Adamson, Sincerely yours,

My dear Sarah, With love,

NOTE: Usually, the first word in each line of a poem is capitalized, but many modern poets don’t
follow this style. When you copy a poem, use the style of the original version.

Capitalizing Names and Titles of People

Rule 1. Capitalize the names of people and the initials that stand for their names.

Examples Kathryn Bernardo Gabby L. Garcia E. C. Santos

Rule 2. Capitalize a title or an abbreviation of a title when it comes before a person’s name.

Examples President Duterte Dr. Ana Reyes Mr. Cruz

Capitalize a title when it’s used instead of a name.

Example “Has the enemy surrendered, General?” asked the colonel.

Don’t capitalize a title that follows a name or one that is used as a common noun.

Examples Woodrow Wilson, president of the United States during World War I,
supported cooperation among nations.

Who was Wilson’s vice president?

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Rule 3. Capitalize the names and abbreviations of academic degrees that follow a name.
Capitalize Jr. and Sr.

Examples A. Reyes, M.D. John Mayer, PhD Eugenio Lopez Jr.

Rule 4. Capitalize words that show family relationships when they’re used as titles or as
substitutes for names.

Example Last year Father and Aunt Beth traveled to several western states.

Don’t capitalize words that show family relationships when they follow possessive nouns
or pronouns.

Example Sarah’s uncle took photographs. My aunt Mary framed them.

Rule 5. Always capitalize the pronoun “I.”

Example Philippine history is the subject I like best.

NOTE: Always capitalize the interjection “O.”

Example O Father, hear us.

Capitalizing Names of Places

The names of specific places are proper nouns and should be capitalized. Don’t capitalize
articles and short prepositions that are part of geographical names.

Rule 1. Capitalize the names of cities, counties, states, countries, and continents.

Examples Davao City Cook County Asia

Philippines Texas Europe

Rule 2. Capitalize the names of bodies of water and other geographical features.

Examples Lake Lanao Gulf of Mexico Sahara Desert

Napa Valley Pacific Ocean

Rule 3. Capitalize the names of sections of a country.

Examples the Great Plains New England

Rule 4. Capitalize direction words when they name a particular section of a country.

Examples the South the West Coast the Northeast

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Don’t capitalize direction words used in other ways.

Examples Kansas is west of Missouri northerly wind

Rule 5. Capitalize the names of streets and highways.

Examples Bangon Street Route 66 Quezon Avenue

Rule 6. Capitalize the names of particular buildings, bridges, monuments, and other structures.

Examples the White House Golden Gate Bridge Lincoln Memorial

Capitalizing Other Proper Nouns and Adjectives

Many nouns besides the names of people and places are proper nouns and should be
capitalized. Adjectives formed from proper nouns are called proper adjectives and should also be
capitalized.

Rule 1. Capitalize all important words in the names of clubs, organizations, businesses,
institutions, and political parties.

Examples Girl Scouts of America Red Cross

University of the Philippines Liberal Party
Microsoft Corporation

Rule 2. Capitalize brand names but not the nouns following them.

Examples Pampers diaper Rexona deodorant Ariel detergent

Rule 3. Capitalize all important words in the names of particular historical events, time periods,
and documents.

Examples Revolutionary War Philippine Independence Day

Iron Age Gettysburg Address

Rule 4. Capitalize the names of days of the week, months of the year, and holidays. Don’t
capitalize the names of the seasons.
Examples Sunday August Labor Day
spring autumn

Rule 5. Capitalize the first word and the last word in the titles of books, chapters, plays, short
stories, poems, essays, articles, movies, television series and programs, songs, magazines, and
newspapers. Capitalize all other words except articles, coordinating conjunctions, and

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prepositions of fewer than five letters. Don’t capitalize the word “the” before the title of a
magazine or newspaper.

Examples “Me Before You” (a title of a movie)

“Crash Landing on You” (a title of a television series)
Cosmopolitan (a title of a magazine)
“Game of Thrones” (a title of a television series)
“The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” (a title of a poem)
“Beauty and a Beat” (a title of a song)
Philippine Daily Inquirer (a title of a newspaper)

Rule 6. Capitalize the names of languages, nationalities, and ethnic groups.

Examples Arabic Mandarin English

Chinese Filipino Tausug

Rule 7. Capitalize proper adjectives. A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper
noun.
Examples Philippine history American literature Korean dramas

NOTE: Capitalize the name of religions and the people who practice them. Capitalize the name
of holy days, sacred writings, and deities.

Examples Islam Muslims Eid’l Fitr the Holy Qur’an

Christianity Christians Christmas the Bible
Buddhism Buddha

NOTE: Capitalize the names of trains, ships, airplanes, and spacecraft.

Examples the Orient Express Titanic

Spirit of St. Louis Voyager 2

NOTE: Don’t capitalize the names of school subjects, except for proper nouns and adjectives and
course names followed by a number.

Examples language art geography earth science

Philippine history English Algebra

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UNIT FOUR
AGREEMENT
Agreement is the correct relationship between a subject and its verb, between a pronoun
and its noun referent, or between a pronoun and its pronoun referent.

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
I. The General Rule
A singular subject requires a singular verb. Therefore,

SINGULAR SUBJECT + Verbs with –s or –es or is, was, has, does

e.g. The Nile River is found in Egypt.

My son sleeps early.
She was studying inside the room.

On the other hand, a plural subject requires a plural verb. Therefore,

PLURAL SUBJECT + Verbs without –s or –es or are, were, have, do

e.g. The houses are made of cement and wood.

Velia and Sixto leave the house at 6 a.m.
They were going to their nephew’s birthday party.

II. Noun Subjects with Phrases

In general, a phrase after a subject does not affect the subject’s agreement with its verb.

A. A lot of phrases may move attention away from the real subject. These phrases may modify
the nouns before them. First, look at the prepositional phrase. This phrase starts with a
preposition and ends with a noun.

e.g. The stars in the sky shine brightly.

The complete subject here is The stars in the sky. If one looks carefully, the main or simple subject
is stars, not sky, because sky is included in a prepositional phrase. Also, stars, not sky, is the doer
of the action.

Therefore, the plural verb shine is used because it agrees with the plural noun stars.

B. Now consider this example.

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One of the men is an engineer.

In the expression One of the men, the subject is One, not the plural noun men that comes after
it. Therefore, the singular verb is is used to agree with the subject.

C. Now try to look at the participial phrase. It is a phrase that begins with a verb (either a verb in
the present participle or past participle) and, as in the example below, describes the noun that
comes before it.

The boy playing with the toy cars is laughing loudly.

The complete subject in the example above has two noun – boy and cars. But since cars is in a
participial phrase, the main or simple subject, therefore, is boy.

III. Intervening Phrases

Intervening phrases are enclosed with commas and are found after subjects. They begin
with words such as along with, as well as, in addition to, including, together with, and other
similar structures. These do not affect the number of the subject and its agreement with the verb
in the sentence.

e.g. The stomach, in addition to the large and small intestines, is a part of the digestive
system.
Noel and Claudio, including their supervisor, approve of the system changes.

IV. Noun Subjects with Clauses

Noun subjects may also be followed by a group of words which begins with the relative
pronoun who, whom, whose, which, or that followed by a verb. Called adjective clauses, they
describe the nouns they follow. They do not, however, affect the agreement of the simple subject
and the important verb in the sentence. Now look at the following example.

The books that were displayed in the library are expensive.

In this example, the adjective clause “that were displayed in the library” describes books,
the simple subject of the sentence. Therefore, the plural verb are is used.

Here is another example.

The writer who wrote the articles is my mother.

In this example, the adjective clause “who wrote the articles” describes writer which is
singular and is the simple subject of the sentence. Therefore, the singular verb is is used.

V. Clauses

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A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb. A dependent clause used as a
subject takes a singular verb.

e.g. That I find Math easy makes me believe I will pass the test.
What the teacher said is funny!
When he would be coming wasn’t relayed to me.

VI. Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns agree with the verb in the clause they are in. However, their number
lies in the noun they refer to.

e.g. One of the men who is made team captain is my friend.

One of the men who are members of the team is my dad.

In the first example above, the relative pronoun who refers to One which complements
“team captain” in its dependent clause. In the second, who refers to men which complements
“members.”

VII. Demonstratives
A. When this or that is the subject, the third person singular form of the verb is used.

e.g. That is the thing I have always wanted.

Why has this happened?

B. When these or those is the subject, the third person plural form of the verb is used.

e.g. These were always in your cabinet.

What are those for?

VIII. Nouns with the Conjunction “and”

There are some rules to follow when the subject consists of two or more nouns that are
connected by “and.”

A. When joining two different nouns, one should use the plural verb form.

e.g. Alligators and crocodiles are normally found in hot countries.

Glen and Joey often rush to class.

B. Determiners can tell if the nouns are the same or different. Having only one determiner means
that the two nouns given are the same person or thing. Thus, the singular form of the verb is
used.

e.g. Her student and nephew tries to make it to the honor roll.

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The nouns student and nephew share the same determiner Her. This means that the two nouns
are the same person and so the singular verb tries is used in the sentence.

C. However, determiners before each of the nouns tell that the nouns are different from each
other. Thus, the plural form of the verb is used.

e.g. Her student and her nephew try to make it to the honor roll.

The nouns student and nephew each have the determiner Her. This means that the two nouns
are different and so the plural verb try is used in the sentence.

D. When more than one noun is regarded as a unit, the singular form of the verb is used.

e.g. Hamburger, fries, and iced tea sells at fifty pesos.

(Hamburger, fries, and iced tea is considered as one product.)
Pancakes and sausages is my usual breakfast.
(Pancakes and sausages is considered as one breakfast dish.)

E. However, the rule above does not apply when “and” is followed by “not.” The verb should
agree with the first noun.

e.g. The chairs and not the table were bought from the shop.
A leader and not more members is what our club needs.

IX. Collective Nouns

A. When a collective noun is regarded as a single unit, the singular form of the verb is used.

e.g. Our basketball team wins every game.

The school choir performs very well.

B. When a collective noun is regarded as individual units, the plural form of the verb is used.

e.g. The committee are arguing about who is best to lead them next year.
The cast of the play practice their lines every afternoon at the school.

C. Also, if the object in the predicate is plural, then it is sensible to use a plural verb.

e.g. Our group have presented our plans to our advisers.

X. Indefinite Pronouns
A. When a subject is preceded by each or every, the singular form of the verb is used.

e.g. Every man, woman, and child is given food.

Each soldier and civilian serves the country.

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B. For the singular indefinite pronouns another, anybody, anyone, anything, either, everybody,
everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, the other, somebody,
someone, and something, a singular verb is used.

e.g. Neither of the boys is going with you.

Everyone has been informed of the schedule changes.

C. For the plural indefinite pronouns both, few, many, others, and several, a plural verb is used.

e.g. Several are joining the school play.

Few of the gifts were left unopened.

D. Another group of indefinite pronouns such as all, a lot, any, lots, more, most, none, plenty,
some, and such may be singular or plural depending on the noun that comes after them.

e.g. A lot of love is needed by a growing child.

Why were all the boxes opened without permission?

XI. Fractions or Percentages

A. When expressions of fractions or percentages are given, the verb agrees with the noun that
immediately comes after these expressions.

e.g. Half of the employees have joined the company outing.

68 percent of the cluster of grapes has rotten.

B. When these expressions are used alone, the verbs to be used will depend on the situation they
are in. Therefore, if the expression of a fraction or a percentage is singular, then a singular verb
is required. The same applies to plural expressions.

e.g. Half of the property goes to her.

Half goes to her.
Three-fourths of the oranges were taken home.
Three-fourths were taken home.

XII. Nouns with or, either – or, or neither – nor

When subjects are joined by or, either – or, or neither – nor, the verb agrees with the
subject closer to it.

e.g. Either they or I am going to the seminar in Hongkong.

Neither thyme nor basil leaves are to be put into the dish.
Be sure that the word or words you say make sense.

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XIII. Titles
In titles, if only one is given, the singular form of the verb is used, and if it is more than
one, the plural form is used.

e.g. Topics in Finite Mathematics is edited by N.F. Quimpo.

Forrest Gump is an award-winning film.
Printed on the list were Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Cinderella, and
Sleeping Beauty which are my favorite children’s books.

XIV. Abstract Nouns

Abstract nouns always take the singular form.

e.g. Honesty is a virtue.

Love makes the world go round.

XV. Distance, Measurement, Money, Rate, and Time

A. Distance, measurement, money, rate, and time are singular and are used with the singular
form of the verb.

e.g. Ten kilos of meat was cooked.

Three gallons of ice cream is enough for the party.

B. However, if the mentioned expressions are preceded by the article The, they become plural.

e.g. The ten kilos of meat we cooked were just sufficient.

The three gallons of ice cream have not been enough.

XVI. The number/variety of, A number/variety of

A. Expressions like “The number of “ or “The variety of” are singular. Thus, the singular verb is
used.

e.g. The number of attendees is more now than last year’s.

I have seen the variety of shirts which costs less in Bangkok.

B. Expressions like “A number of” or “A variety of” are plural. Therefore, the plural form of the
verb is used.

e.g. A number of guests arrive from the city every month.

A variety of animals are found in the wild.

XVII. Predicate Nouns

When the subject and the predicate noun have different numbers, the verb agrees with
the subject, not with the predicate noun.

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e.g. My mother’s collection is Ming vases from China.

Although the collection refers to the “vases,” the verb still agrees with the subject
collection and not the predicate noun vases. Therefore, the verb is is used.
Here is another example.

Three boxes of canned goods were the package.

The verb were agrees with the subject boxes and not with the predicate noun package.

XVIII. Subjects after the Verb (Inverted Sentences)

A. In an inverted sentence order, phrases may come at the beginning of the sentence to show
location. Verbs that come before the subject must still agree with the subject.

e.g. Around the benches plays a dog.

The doer of the verb plays is dog. If the sentence is rearranged, it will become “A dog
plays around the benches.”

B. The same goes with an interrogative sentence.

e.g. What kinds of food does he like?

The preference is done by the subject he so the verb does is used. If the sentence is
rearranged, it will become “He does like what kinds of food?”, or simply, “He likes what kinds of
food?”

C. The rule also applies to sentences starting with here, there, and everywhere.

e.g. Here eat the workers when they have their break.

The action eat is done by the noun workers. If the sentence is rearranged , it will become
”The workers eat here when they have their break.”

XIX. Adjectives used as Nouns

When adjectives are used as nouns, the plural form of the verb is used.

e.g. The weak do not last.

The generous always prosper.
The poor were given employment by the government.

XX. Nouns in Pairs

A. When nouns that come in pairs are used as subjects, they take the plural form of the verb.

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e.g. Where are my slippers?

Her glasses were lost.

B. However, when the expression “a pair of” comes before them, they become singular.

e.g. Where is my pair of slippers?

Her pair of glasses was lost.

XXI. Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in Meaning

Some nouns, though plural in form like mathematics, news, economics, etc., are singular
in meaning.

e.g. Mathematics is made easier in MSA.

The news is about our president.

XXII. Pronouns YOU and I

You and I are special pronoun that, although singular in form, may take plural verbs.

e.g. I eat vegetables at least once a day.

You dance better than any other student I know.
The personal pronoun you uses the plural verbs (are, were, have, and do). On the other
hand, the pronoun I uses am, was, have, or do.

e.g. You are my English teacher.

I have given him a pink shirt.

The pronoun I may also uses the verb were particularly in conditional clauses or IF Clauses.

e.g. If I were there, they would have known what to do.

XXIII. Other Expressions

A. The expression “Many a / an + (adjective) noun” agrees with a singular verb.

e.g. Many a skilled businessman has several ways to improve his company and
increase its profit.
In some countries, many an old person stays in a nursing home.

B. The expression “More than one” uses a singular verb.

e.g. More than one employee gets a salary increase.

More than one of the trivia questions was very difficult.

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C. The expressions “A/The minority” and “A/The majority” are singular if used alone as subjects.
However, when an “of “ phrase follows them, the verb agrees with the noun after the preposition
“of.”

e.g. The majority does understand the lecture.

The majority of students do understand the lecture.

(In the second example, the verb do agrees with the noun students which comes after the
preposition “of.”)

D. Do not confuse the main or simple subject with adverbs of time such as “sometimes” and
“always.” The verb must still agree with the subject of the sentence.

e.g. The Evergreen tree always stays green all year round.
A child sometimes has to be allowed to commit mistakes.

PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
A pronoun should agree with its antecedent or noun referent. The antecedent is the noun
that a pronoun refers to. Look at the example below.

Angela had her debut last night.

The pronoun her refers to Angela. The pronoun and the antecedent in this sentence agree
both in number and in gender. The antecedent can also be a pronoun, as in the example below.

She had her debut last night.

The pronoun her refers to She. In this case, both pronouns agree in number and in gender.

A. Agreement in NUMBER
A singular pronoun should agree with a singular antecedent. The same goes for a plural
pronoun. Look at the example below.

The girl just had their monthly period.

The plural pronoun their does not agree with the antecedent or referent girl which is
singular. Therefore, change their to her as in the sentence below.

The girl just had her monthly period.

B. Agreement in GENDER

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Another area of agreement is in gender (male/female/neuter). A male pronoun must

agree with a male antecedent. The same goes for a female or a neuter pronoun.
Here is an example.

Joan always keeps her opinion to himself.

The pronoun himself does not agree with the noun referent Joan. Therefore, change
himself to herself as in the sentence below.

Joan always keeps her opinion to herself.

Now, take note of the following sentence.

Anybody can save his money in the bank.

Anybody is a singular indefinite pronoun. Therefore, the pronoun his agrees with
Anybody in number. The pronoun his is also used because male is the universal gender and
should, therefore, be used when the gender of the pronoun is indefinite.

C. Antecedents that are Possessive Nouns

Antecedents can also be nouns that are possessive in form. Take note of the following
sentences.

The boy’s toys are nowhere to be found. We think he gave them to charity.

The boys’ toys are nowhere to be found. We think they gave them to charity.

The antecedent possessive noun boy’s is singular. Therefore, the singular pronoun he is
used. However, in the second sentence wherein the antecedent is the plural possessive noun
boys’, the pronoun used is they.

UNIT FIVE
Error Identification
In identifying errors, it is helpful to master the usage of the different parts of speech and
the different rules of agreement, punctuation, and capitalization. There are, however, other
errors in written English that must also be considered.

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A. Double Negatives
The negative adverb not or never should not be joined with another negative adverb
such as barely, hardly, rarely, scarcely, or seldom.

INCORRECT: We seldom never come to work late.

CORRECT: We seldom come to work late.

INCORRECT: I can't hardly breathe with this new dress.

CORRECT: I can hardly breathe with this new dress.

Indefinite pronouns such as neither, nobody, and none should also not be used with
other negative words. Also, if there is a negative adverb such as no or not in the sentence,
use any, anybody, or anyone as the subject or the object in the sentence.

INCORRECT: I don't want nobody to leave this room.

CORRECT: I don't want anybody to leave this room.

INCORRECT: Neither didn't bring any pen.

CORRECT: Neither brought any pen.

B. Redundancy
Words that have the same meaning should not be put together in a sentence. Some
redundant expressions are advance forward, ascend up, deformed in shape, descend down,
enter in, new innovation, over-exaggerated, and return back.

INCORRECT: The soup was sufficiently warm enough.

CORRECT: The soup was warm enough.

INCORRECT: He treated them in an unjust manner.

CORRECT: He treated them unjustly.

Having two subjects in the sentence that refer to the same person or thing is also redundant.

INCORRECT: The manager of the company, he left.

CORRECT: The manager of the company left.

Redundancy in writing refers to the unnecessary repetition of ideas or words that do not
add value to the sentence.
To correct redundancy, remove the repetitive or unnecessary elements while
maintaining the original meaning.

Here are some examples:

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Incorrect: The reason why he left early was because he was tired.
Correct: He left early because he was tired.

Incorrect: In my opinion, I think that the policy should be changed.

Correct: I think the policy should be changed.
In my opinion, the policy should be changed.

Incorrect: Each and every one of the students must complete the assignment.
Correct: Each student must complete the assignment.
Every student must complete the assignment.

By eliminating redundant words or phrases, the sentences become clearer and more concise.

C. Agreement in Number, Gender, Mood, Person, and Tense

To achieve clarity and coherence, observe agreement in number, gender, mood,
person, and tense. Take note of the following wrong examples and their corrections.

Number. Pronouns can either be singular or plural. So be consistent in number. Observe

these examples.

INCORRECT: Only Ray studied since they would take the test.
CORRECT: Only Ray studied since he would take the test.

INCORRECT: l made the cake ourselves.

CORRECT: I made the cake myself.

Gender. The three genders are male, female, and neuter. Be sure to use the pronoun
appropriate to the gender of the noun in the sentence.

INCORRECT: Juancho taught herself to drive.

CORRECT: Juancho taught himself to drive.

INCORRECT: A bird feeds his young with earthworms.

CORRECT: A bird feeds its young with earthworms.

However, if the noun given is neuter or is void of gender, there is no need to

always put the two other gender pronouns since the sentence will be awkward
to read.

AWKWARD: Each student should carefully work on his or her research so that
he or she can get a high grade from his or her teacher.

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APPROPRIATE: Each student should carefully work on his research so that he can
get a high grade from his teacher.

The universal gender, male, is used to avoid this kind of redundancy.

Person. If the first person point of view of pronouns is used, be sure that its usage is
consistent throughout the sentence. The same goes with the second and third
person points of view.

INCORRECT: Those of you who are finished with the test may pass his paper to their left.
CORRECT: Those of you who are finished with the test may pass your paper to your
left.

INCORRECT: I would enlist her name if I wanted to join.

CORRECT: I would enlist my name if I wanted to join.

Mood. There are three different moods of verbs: the indicative, the imperative, and the
subjunctive. Be consistent in using their forms. The example below is in the
indicative mood. Therefore, the linking verb should take tense and not be in its
simple form.

INCORRECT: The exam be taken yesterday, wasn't it?

CORRECT: The exam was taken yesterday, wasn't it?

The imperative mood always starts with a verb so be careful with this kind of construction.

INCORRECT: Choose a car; would you pay for it?

CORRECT: Choose a car; pay for it.

The mood is in the subjunctive if as if, as though, imagine, or suppose is used. Here, the linking
verb used is always were.

INCORRECT: Suppose he was to ask you to go with him to the party, will you come?
CORRECT: Suppose he were to ask you to go with him to the party, would you come?

INCORRECT: She looked at him as if he was guilty.

CORRECT: She looked at him as if he were guilty.

The three primary moods of verbs in English are the indicative, imperative, and subjunctive
moods. Each mood conveys a different type of action or state of being.

1. Indicative Mood
It is used to state facts, ask questions, or express opinions.

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Examples:

• She walks to school every day.

• Are you coming to the party?
• I think it will rain tomorrow.

2. Imperative Mood
It is used to give commands, make requests, or offer invitations.

Examples:

• Close the door.

• Please pass the salt.
• Join us for dinner.

3. Subjunctive Mood
It is used to express wishes, suggestions, demands, or conditions that are
hypothetical or contrary to fact. It often conveys situations that are hypothetical,
desirable, or not yet realized.

Examples:

(Wish)
• I wish I were taller.

(Suggestion or Recommendation)
• She recommended that he study harder.
• I suggest that he see a doctor.

(Demand or Command)
• The teacher insists that the student be on time.

(Hypothetical Situation or Condition Contrary to Fact)

• If I were rich, I would travel the world.
• If I were you, I would apologize

(Formulating Requirement)
• It is essential that she be informed immediately.

Each mood serves a distinct purpose in conveying the speaker’s intent or the nature of the action.

Tense. Examples of modals in the present tense are can, may, and will. The past forms
of these are could, might, and would respectively. Observe the following

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sentences.

Olive thinks she can; Rae thought he could.

Olive says she may stay; Rae said he might stay.
Oive predicts it will rain; Rae predicted it would rain.

That contestant may win because she dances very well. (present)
I thought that she would win, and I was right. (past)

D. Parallelism
Parallelism gives clarity, coherence, and unity in both speech and writing. The correct
use of conjunctions is necessary to achieve this. Be sure to join words, phrases, or clauses
with the same grammatical forms.

Examples:

In using adjectives
INCORRECT: Paulo is sure and he is efficient in his work.
CORRECT: Paulo is sure and efficient in his work.

In using verbals
INCORRECT: I like to sing and dancing.
CORRECT: I like to sing and to dance.

In using possessive nouns or pronouns in comparisons

INCORRECT: Bessie's essay is better than Jamie.
CORRECT: Bessie's essay is better than Jamie's.

INCORRECT: The rules of soccer are different from chess.

CORRECT: The rules of soccer are different from those of chess.

In using phrases
INCORRECT: It may be under her desk or surely her bag.
CORRECT: It may be under her desk or inside her bag.

In using clauses
INCORRECT: The more we do today, we will do less next week.
CORRECT: The more we do today, the less we will do next week.

E. Misplaced or Dangling Modifiers

Modifiers should be near the words they describe. Observe the following sentence.

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Brand new and blue, Dad cleaned our car.

It does not make sense to use the modifier "Brand new and blue" to describe the noun
Dad. Therefore, it should be near the noun car that can logically be described as "Brand new
and blue." The correct sentence should then be

Brand new and blue, our car was cleaned by Dad.

[or, Dad cleaned our brand new and blue car.]

Here are other examples.

INCORRECT: A competitive sport, basketball players regularly practice to improve their

game.
CORRECT: To be more competitive, basketball players regularly practice to improve
their game.

INCORRECT: Antoinette noted that Nicole left early in her notebook.

CORRECT: Antoinette noted in her notebook that Nicole left early.

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the
sentence.
To correct a sentence with a dangling modifier, ensure that the word or phrase being
modified is clearly identified and positioned close to the modifier.

Here are some examples:

Incorrect: Running to catch the bus, the book fell out of my bag.
Correct: Running to catch the bus, I dropped the book out of my bag.

Incorrect: After reading the book, the movie was disappointing.

Correct: After reading the book, I found the movie disappointing.

Incorrect: Driving down the street, the trees were beautiful.

Correct: Driving down the street, I found the trees beautiful.

In each case, the subject performing the action (e.g. “I”) is clearly stated, making the sentence
clear and logically correct.

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the
word it modifies or describes, leading to a confusing or awkward sentence.
To correct a sentence with a misplaced modifier, place the modifier as close as possible
to the word it is intended to modify.

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Here are some examples:

Incorrect: She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates.

Correct: She served the children sandwiches on paper plates.

Incorrect: He nearly kicked the ball 50 meters away.

Correct: He kicked the ball nearly 50 meters away.

Incorrect: Covered in mud, John had to clean the dog.

Correct: John had to clean the dog, which was covered in mud.

By placing the modifier next to the word it modifies, the sentence becomes clearer and the
intended meaning is accurately conveyed.

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