AS5040: Flight Mechanics

Lecture 4
In this lecture, we will express the governing equations of motion for a six degree 23rd January, 2025
of freedom rigid body in the body frame, discuss the forces acting on the airplane,
and look at how to transform a vector from one reference frame to another.

Recap
In the previous lecture, we derived the following governing EOM of a rigid
body in the body frame.
dωB
IB = mnetB − ωB × ( IB ωB ) (1)
dt B
d ( vB )
m = f netB − ωB × (mvB ). (2)
dt B

In the above equations, subscript B denotes that the vector is expressed along
the bases of the body-fixed reference frame. B represents that the derivative is
taken with respect to the body-fixed reference frame.

Scalar Governing Equations of Motion in the Body Frame

By defining the components of the vectors along the body frame as vB =
[u v w] T , ωB = [ p q r ] T , f netB = [ f x f y f z ] T , and mnetB = [m x my mz ] T , we
can write equation (2) as

fx
u̇ = + rv − qw (3)
m
fy
v̇ = + pw − ru (4)
m
fz
ẇ = + qu − pv. (5)
m

We cannot write equation (1) succinctly in a similar manner. Fortunately,

we can simplify the equations for an airplane. If we define the body-fixed
frame such that the origin of the body frame is at the CG of the airplane and
its x-axis points along the fuselage reference line (positive forward), its z-
axis is perpendicular to the x-axis and lies in the plane of symmetry (positive
downwards), and the y-axis is such that xyz form a right-handed system, then
Ixy = 0 and Iyz = 0. We can now write equation (1) as

m x = Ixx ṗ − Izx ṙ + qr ( Izz − Iyy ) − pqIzx (6)

2 2
my = Iyy q̇ + pr ( Ixx − Izz ) + ( p − r ) Izx (7)
mz = − Izx ṗ + Izz ṙ + pq( Iyy − Ixx ) + qrIzx . (8) Figure 1: Body-fixed reference frame of an
airplane.

The six first-order coupled ordinary differential equations given by (3)-(8)

describe the evolution of u, v, w, p, q, and r. To solve these equations, we
need to write expressions for the net external forces and moments acting on
 AS5040: Flight Mechanics 2

the airplane. As we did for the other vectors, the forces and moments are
written with respect to the body-fixed reference frame.

Forces Acting on the Airplane

The forces acting on the airplane have components due to the aerodynamic
effects, the engine thrust, and the Earth’s gravitational field. Thus, f netB can
1
While this is a reasonable assumption to
be written as
make, there are instances where the f y and
f netB = f aeroB + f engineB + f gravityB (9) f z components of thrust could be non-zero.
In the case of airplanes with engine pylons
We will defer the discussion on the aerodynamic forces to a future lecture. As mounted below the wing or in the case of
for the thrust force, we assume that it acts along the xb axis of the body frame1 . tail-mounted engines, the thrust line is verti-
cally offset from the CG, thereby resulting in
Therefore, f engineB is written as
a non-zero contribution of the thrust force to
  f z . In some propeller airplanes, the thrust line
T is laterally offset with respect to the fuselage
f engineB =  0  . (10)
 
reference line, thereby resulting in a non-zero
f y due to thrust.
0
The force due to the Earth’s gravitational field can be written down easily in the
Earth-fixed inertial reference frame2 as opposed to the body frame. Therefore, 2
We consider a specific Earth-fixed inertial
we can write f gravity I , which is the gravitational force acting on the aircraft frame called the NED frame. This inertial
frame is fixed on the surface of the Earth and
expressed in the NED inertial frame, as its x-axis points along the North direction, y-
  axis points along the East direction, and the
0 z-axis points down to the center of the Earth.
f gravity I =  0  . (11) Since the NED frame is defined with respect
 
to a local tangent plane at the surface of the
mg Earth, the NED frame considers a flat-Earth
model, which is a reasonable assumption
How do we get f gravityB from f gravity I ? We need to know how to transform a
for short-duration and short-distance flights.
vector from one reference frame to another given their relative orientation. Also, for short-duration flights, the effects
due to the Earth’s rotation on the airplane mo-
tion can be neglected, and the NED frame can
Principal Rotations be considered an inertial frame.

Consider two reference frames F1 and F2 . If F2 can be obtained from F1 by a

rotation about one of the coordinate axes of F1 , then the associated rotation is
termed a principal rotation. For instance, if F2 can be obtained from F1 by a
rotation about the z-axis, then how does one transform a vector ⃗a expressed in
F1 (a1 ) to a vector expressed in F2 (a2 )? Let a1 = [ a x1 ay1 az1 ] T , where
a x1 , ay1 , and az1 are the components of ⃗a in F1 . Similarly, we can define a2 =
[ a x2 ay2 az2 ] T . If i1 j1 k1 are the unit vectors of frame F1 (see Figure 2),
then ⃗a = a x1 î1 + ay1 ĵ1 + az1 k̂1 . Similarly, we have ⃗a = a x2 î2 + ay2 ĵ2 + az2 k̂2 .
To obtain a relationship between a1 and a2 , we need to know how the unit
vectors i2 j2 k2 of the reference frame F2 are expressed in terms of the unit
vectors i1 j1 k1 of frame F1 .

î1 = cos θz î2 + − sin θz ĵ2

Figure 2: Principal rotation about the z-axis.
ĵ1 = sin θz î2 + cos θz ĵ2
k̂1 = k̂2
 AS5040: Flight Mechanics 3

Using the preceding expressions, we can write

⃗a = a x1 î1 + ay1 ĵ1 + az1 k̂1

= ( a x1 cos θz + ay1 sin θz )î2 + (− a x1 sin θz + ay1 cos θz ) ĵ1 + az1 k̂2
= a x2 î2 + ay2 ĵ2 + az2 k̂2 .

Thus, we get
    
a x2 cos θz sin θz 0 a x1
 ay2  = − sin θz cos θz 0   a y1  . (12)
    
a z2 0 0 1 a z1

The matrix in equation (12) is called a rotation matrix and is denoted by

Rz (θz ). What are the properties of Rz (θz )? Can you write down similar
expressions for R x (θ x ) and Ry (θy )?