Let’s start Thoerems
Why Theorems?
A major disadvantage of Kirchoff’s Law approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious
computation is involved.
The growth in areas of application of electric circuits has led to an evolution from simple to
complex circuits.
To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some theorems to simplify
circuit analysis.
What is Theorem? – Set of Rules / Procedures for solving simple or complex circuits
Popular Theorem
Source Transformation
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Maximum power transfer Theorem
Reciprocity Theorem
Note:
Theorems are applicable to Linear circuits
A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to its input.
Superposition Theorem
Statement
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
Steps
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (Voltage or current) due
to that active source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources,
Note
To remove Voltage source – Short circuit it
To remove current source – Open circuit it
#Problem 1
Find v, using Superposition theorem
Solution
There are two sources,
The voltage v = v1 + v2, where v1 is voltage due to source_1 and v2 is voltage due to source_2
Consider source 1 and re-draw the circuit Consider source 2 and re-draw the circuit
Open current source Short voltage source
Apply voltage division rule, From Circuit,
v1 = 6 x 4 / 12 = 2 V v2 = 4 i3
Apply current division rule
i3 = 3 x 8 / 12 = 2 A
v2=4 x 2 = 8 V
Therefore V = v1+v2=10 V
# Problem 2
Find the current I, using superposition theorem
Solution
Let i = i1 + i2+ i3
where, i1 is due to 12 V, i2 is due to 24 V and i3 is due to 3 A
Consider source 1
To find equivalent resistance:
(4 + 8) ││ 4 = 3
Therefore i1=12 / (3+ 3)
i1= 2 A
Consider source 2
From fig ib = i2
There are two meshes.
Consider mesh 1
24+8ia+4ia+4(ia-ib) = 0
24 + 16ia – 4ib = 0
6 + 4ia- ib = 0 ------------------eqn 1
Consider mesh 2
4(ib-ia) + 3ib = 0
– 4 ia + 7 ib ------------------ eqn 2
Solving eqns 1 and 2
ib = i2 = -1 A
Consider Source 3
Applying nodal Analysis
At node 1
(v1-0)/4+ (v1-0)/3 = (v2-v1)/4
10v1 -3v2 = 0----------eqn 3
At node 2
3 = v2/8 + (v2-v1)/4
-2v1 + 3v2 = 24 ---------- eqn 4
Solving eqns 3 and 4
v1 = 3 V and i3=v1/3 = 1 A ; i3=1 A
Total current i = i1 + i2+ i3 = 2-1+1 = 2 A; i=2A
# Problem 1
Using Superposition Theorem find vx
Solution:
You should not neglect dependent source ---- consider it as an circuit element
We have only two sources.
Vx = vx1 + vx2, where vx1 – is due to source 1 and vx2 – is due to source 2
Consider source 1
i2
i1
At node,
i1+0.1vx1 = i2; (20-vx1)/20 + 0.1 vx1 = (vx1-0)/4; vx1 = 5 V
Consider source 2
i2
i1
At node,
i1+4+0.1vx2 = i2; (0-vx2)/20 +4 + 0.1vx2 = vx2/4; vx2 = 20V
Finally vx = vx1 + vx2 = 5 + 20 = 25 V
Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by
a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
For Independent source,
For dependent source,
# Problem 2
Using Source Transformation find vo in circuit
Solution:
Convert 3A with parallel 4 ohms ---------- voltage source with series resistance
V = I R = 3 x 4 = 12 V ---------- 12V with series resistance of 4 ohms
Convert 12 V with 6 ohms series resistance ----------- current source with parallel resistance
I = v/R = 12/6 = 2A ----- 2 A with 6 ohm parallel resistance
Convert 12 v and 3 ohms ------------- current source with parallel resistance
I = v / R = 12/3 ------------- 4 A with 3 ohms parallel resistance
Add the current source = 4 + (-2) = 2 A
6 parallel to 3 ohms = 2 ohms
Current through 8 ohms = 2 x 2/(2+8)= 0.4A
Vo= 0.4 x 8= 3.2V
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
Steps to be followed
■ CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources,
we turn off all independent sources. Rth is the input resistance of the network looking between
terminals a and b (i.e) Voltage sources – Short it and Current sources – Open it.
■ CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources
we turn off all independent sources. Dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are
controlled by circuit variables.
We apply a voltage source vo (1 V) at terminals a and b and determine the resulting current io. Then
Rth = vo / io.
Alternatively, we may insert a current source io (1 A) at terminals a-b and find the terminal voltage
vo. Then Rth = vo / io.
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at
the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.
Steps to be followed
■ CASE 1 If the network has no dependent sources,
we turn off all independent sources (i.e) Voltage sources – Short it and Current sources – Open
it.
Rth is the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b after turning off
independent sources
To find Vth – use KVL or KCL / mesh analysis or Nodal analysis
■ CASE 2 If the network has dependent sources
we turn off all independent sources. Dependent sources are not to be turned off because they
are controlled by circuit variables.
To find Rth
We apply a voltage source vo (1 V) (Test source) at terminals a and b and determine the
resulting current io. Then Rth = vo / io. (Apply when Mesh Analysis is used)
Alternatively, we may insert a current source io (1 A) (Test source) at terminals a-b and find
the terminal voltage vo. Then Rth = vo / io.(Apply when Nodal Analysis is used)
To find Vth - use KVL or KCL / mesh analysis or Nodal analysis
To Find Load current (IL) and Load Voltage (VL)
# Problem 1
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals a and b in the
circuit. Then find I
Solution:
To find Vth – use nodal analysis to solve(It’s your choice)
Sources are independent
v2 = vth
v1
i3
i1 i2
Apply nodal equation at v1
i1+3 = i2
(18 – v1)/6 + 3 =(v1 – v2)/6; 2v1-v2 = 36 ------------- eqn 1
Apply nodal equation at v2
i2=i3
(v1-v2)/6 = (v2-0)/4; 2v1-5v2 = 0 ------------ eqn 2
Solving eqns 1 and 2; v2= 9 V
To find Rth
As only independent sources are present, neglect it(Voltage source- short, Current source - Open)
Rth = 12 parallel to 4 = 3 ohms
I = 9/4 = 2.25 A
# Problem 2 – Find the Thevenin’s Equivalent of the following circuit
v1 v2 = vth
Solution:
Note dependent sources are present in given circuit
From fig,
Ix = (v1- v2)/3
To find Vth
Considering nodal analysis
At node 1,
0.5v1+2.5v2=18; v1+5v2=36------------eqn 1
At node 2
4v1-7v2=0 ------------------- eqn 2
Solving eqns 1 and 2; v2 = vth = 5.33V
To find Rth
Add 1A test source across a and b terminal
WKT Rth = vo/io
v1 v2 =vo
Considering nodal analysis
At node 1
v1 + 5v2=0 ------eqn 1
At node 2
4v1-7v2 = -12 -------- eqn 2
Solving for v2,
v2 =vo = 0.44 V
Therefore Rth = vo/io = 0.44 / 1 = 0.44 ohms
# Problem
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit in Fig. at terminals a-b.
Solution:
To find Vth – voltage across terminals a-b, open circuit voltage
Apply mesh analysis to find vth
Mesh1
i1 = 5A --------------------eqn 1
mesh 2
4(i2-i1) + 2(i2-i3) +6i2 = 0
4i2-4i1+2i2-2i3+6i2 = 0
-4i1+12i2-2i3 = 0
-2i1+6i2-i3 = 0--------------------eqn 2
Mesh 3
-2vx+ 2(i3-i2) =0--------eqn 3
Vx = 4(i1-i2)--------------- ohms law
On solving enqs,
i2 =10/3 A = 3.33A
Vth = Voc = i2 x 6 = 10/3 x 6 = 20 V
To find Rth = vo/io = 1/ io; io = -i3
Mesh 1
-2vx+2(i1-i2) = 0 -------eqn 1
Vx = 4(-i2) = -4i2---------------by ohms law
Mesh 2
4(i2)+2(i2 -i1) + 6(i2-i3) = 0-------eqn 2
Mesh 3
6(i3-i2)+2(i3)+1 = 0----------eqn 3
i3 = -1/6 V
io=-i3 = 1/6
Rth = vo/io = 1/1/6
Rth = 6 ohms
Norton’s Theorem - It states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current
through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
Steps to be followed
1. To find IN – Short the terminals a-b, apply mesh analysis or Nodal analysis to find short circuit
current
2. To find RN –
a. When independent sources are present ------- Remove all independent sources and find
equivalent resistance.
b. When Dependent sources are present --------- Remove all independent sources only.
Add test source , 1V – for mesh analysis, 1A – for Nodal analysis. Apply mesh or Nodal
analysis to find Io or Vo respectively. Calculate RN = Vo / Io.
Close relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems
# Problem 1
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit in Fig at terminals a-b.
To find IN
Short the terminals a-b. V1
6 parallel to short = short
Apply nodal Analysis at v1
(15-v1)/3 + 4 = v1/3
V1 = 27/2 V = 13.5 V
IN= v1/R = 27/2 /3 = 4.5 A ; circled R
To find RN
RN = (3+3)parallel to 6 = 3 ohms
# Problem 2
Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the circuit given below at terminals a-b
i1 i1
To find IN
Short a-b, Therefore 5 parallel to short = short
Consider mesh analysis
From Mesh 1
i1= 2 A -----------------eqn 1
From mesh 2
-12 + 4(i2-i1)+8i2+8i2 = 0
-4i1+20i2=12 ------------------eqn 2
Solving eqns 1 and 2
i2 = 1 A = IN
TO find RN
= (8+8+4) parallel to 5 = 4 ohms
# Problem 3
Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN of the circuit in Fig. at terminals a-b.
V1
IN
From circuit ix=v1/ 4 = 10 /4 = 2.5 A
To find IN
Short terminals a-b
Apply nodal analysis at v1
(10-v1)/5 + 2ix = IN
Therefore IN=7A
To find RN
Add 1A test source at a-b
Apply nodal at vo
(0-vo)/5 + 2ix + 1 = 0
vo = 5 V
Therefore RN = vo / io = 5 / 1
RN= 5ohms
# Problem 4
Find Norton’s Equivalent
vx = 0
.
To find IN
Short a-b
As vx = 0;
IN = 10A
To find RN
Add 1V test source at a-b
Apply mesh analysis
Mesh 1,
6i1 + 2vx + 2(11-i2) = 0
2i1 – i2 = 0 -------------eqn 1
Mesh 2,
2(i2-i1) + 1 = 0
-2i1 + 2 i2 = 0--------------eqn 2
Solving eqns 1 and 2
i2 = -1A
As io = -i2; io = 1 A
RN = vo / io = 1 / 1
RN = 1 ohm
Maximum Power Transfer
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance
as seen from the load (RL =RTh).
Steps to be followed
1. Find Thevenin’s equivalent voltage – Vth, by removing RL (use mesh or nodal)
2. If independent sources are present, ignore them to find Rth.
3. If dependent sources are also present, then ignore independent sources, add test source and
find Rth = vo/io
4. If dependent sources are present, short a-b, find IN , and Rth = Vth / IN
# Problem 1
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit. Find its maximum power
Solution
To find Rth(Remove Load)
As sources are independent, neglect them to find Rth
Rth = (6 parallel to 12 ) + 3 + 2 = 9 ohms
To find Vth, remove load Vth
i1
Let’s Start with mesh Analysis i2
Mesh 1
-12 +6i1+12(i1-i2)=0
3i1-2i2=2--------eqn 1
Mesh 2
3i2+12(i2-i1) ----- not to be written like this
i2= -2 ------ eqn 2
Solve eqn 1 and 2
i1= -2/3
consider outer loop, Apply KVL
-12 + 6i1 + 3i3+2(no current = 0)+Vth = 0
Vth = 22v
On substituting in Pmax = 22 x 22 / (4 x 9) = 13.44 W
v2= Vth
Another method to find Vth v1
Apply nodal
At node 1
(12-v1) / 6 =v1/12 + (v1 – v2)/3
7v1-4v2= 24-----------eqn 1
At node 2
(v1 – v2)/3 + 2=0
V1 – v2 = -6 ---------- eqn 2
Solving eqns 1 and 2
V2 = 22V, as v2 = Vth
Vth = 22 v
Max power transfer will occur, when Rth = RL, Therefore RL = 9ohms
# Problem 2
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit. Find its maximum power
Solution,
Remove load,
Apply mesh analysis,
Vth
mesh 1
i1
-9+2i1+i(i1)+3vx = 0; vx = 2i1
9i1=9
i1 = 1------------eqn 1
Apply KVL to outer loop,
-9+2i1+4(0)+Vth = 0 ----- eqn 2
Solve eqns 1 and 2 to get Vth
Vth = 7V
To find Rth
Method 1
As dependent source is present,
add 1v test source across output terminals.
Remove independent source. i3 i4
Apply mesh Analysis
Mesh 1
2i3+1(i3-i4)+3vx=0; vx = 2i3
9i3-i4=0 --------eqn 3
Mesh 2
-3vx + 1(i4-i3)+4i4+1 = 0
-7i3+5i4=-1 ----eqn 4
On Solving eqn 3 and 4, i3 = -1/38
Solve for i4, i4 = -0.2368
From fig: io =-i4 ;
Therefore io = 0.23968;
Rth = vo / io = 4.22ohms ;
Pmax= 7*7/(4 * 4.22) = 2.902 W
Method 2 to find Rth
Short the output terminals to find IN
Apply KVL
Mesh 1
-9 + 2i1+1(i1-i2) + 3vx =0; vx = 2i1
i2
9i1 – i2 = 9 --- eqn 5
Mesh 2
-3vx + i(i2-i1)+4i2 = 0
-7i1 + 5i2 = 0---eqn 6
Solving eqns 5 and 6,
i1= 45/38 A ; i2=1.657A
Then find Rth
Rth = Vth / IN = 7 / 1.657 = 4.22 ohms.
Reciprocity Theorem
It states that if a voltage source V in one branch of a linear network produces a current I in another
mesh, then if the voltage source V is moved from the first to the second branch, it will cause the
same current in the first branch, where the voltage source has been replaced by a short circuit in first
branch.
Note:
Response will be checked against only one voltage source
Steps to be followed:
1. Find the current in mesh 2
2. Replace the voltage source in mesh 2
3. Find the current in mesh 1
# Problem
Verify Reciprocity Theorem for the following circuit
Solution
Find current I due to 45 V source
Find total current Is = V / Req = 45 / Req
Req = (4 + 2) parallel 6 + 12 = 15 ohms
Is = 45 / 15 = 3 A
Apply current division rule, I = Is * away resistance / total resistance
I = 3 * 6 / (6+2 + 4) = 18 / 12 = 1.5 A
Find the equivalent resistance
Req = (12 parallel to 6) + 2 + 4 = 10 ohms
Find total current now I = 45 / 10 = 4.5 A
Apply current division rule Is = 4.5 * 6 / (12 + 6) = 1.5 A
Thus Reciprocity verified
# Problem 2
Verify Reciprocity Theorem for the following circuit
Solution
Req = (6 parallel 7) +5 = 8.23 ohms
Total current Is = V / Req = 10 /8.23 = 1.214 A
Apply current division rule
I = 1.214 * 6/(6+7)= 0.56 A
Req = 5 parallel to 6 +7 = 9.727 ohms
Total current I = v / Req = 10 / 9.727 = 1.028 A
Apply current division rule
Is = 1.028 * 6/(5 + 6) = 0.56 A
Thus reciprocity theorem is verified
