Module 4

Knowledge and Reasoning

(4.1)
Definition and importance of Knowledge (wampus on pg 20)
● Knowledge can be defined as the body of facts and principles
accumulated by human-kind or the act, fact, or state of knowing
● Knowledge can be considered as the distillation of information
that has been collected, classified, organized, integrated,
abstracted and value added.

Characteristics of Knowledge

• Knowledge is huge (Large in number or quantity).

• Knowledge is hard to characterize accurately.
• Knowledge differs from data in that it is organized such that it
corresponds to the ways it will be used.
• Knowledge is interpreted differently by different people.

Issues in Knowledge Representation

1. Important attributes
There are two attributes shown in the diagram, instance and isa. Since
these attributes support inheritance, they are of prime importance.

2. Relationships among attributes

Basically, the attributes used to describe objects are nothing but the
entities. However, the attributes of an object do not depend on the encoded
specific knowledge.

3. Choosing the granularity of representation

While deciding the granularity of representation, it is necessary to know the
following:
i. What are the primitives and at what level should the knowledge be
represented?

ii. What should be the number (small or large) of low-level primitives or

high-level facts?

4. Representing sets of objects.

There are some properties of objects which satisfy the condition of a set
together but not as individual.

5. Finding the right structure as needed

To describe a particular situation, it is always important to find the access
of right structure. This can be done by selecting an initial structure and then
revising the choice.

Representation SystemKnowledge s

There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given
as follows:

1. Logical Representation

Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on

various conditions. This representation lays down some important
communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and
semantics

2. Semantic Network Representation

In Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of

graphical networks. This network consists of nodes representing
objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those
 objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different
forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to
understand and can be easily extended.

Statements:

Jerry is a cat.

Jerry is a mammal

Jerry is owned by Priya.

Jerry is brown.

All Mammals are animals.

3. Frame Representation

A frame is a record-like structure which consists of a collection of

attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world. Frames are
 the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypical situations. It consists of a collection of slots
and slot values. These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have
names and values which are called facets.

Facets are features of frames which enable us to put constraints on

the frames

4. Production Rules

In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition
exists then production rule fires and corresponding action is carried
out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be
applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated
problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-
act cycle
 Example:

● IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)

● IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit

down).

● IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).

● IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the

bus).

Properties of Knowledge Representation Systems

1. Representational Accuracy:

The KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of

required knowledge.

2. Inferential Adequacy: (based on evidence)

The KR system should have the ability to manipulate the

representational structures to produce new knowledge corresponding
to existing structure.

3. Inferential Efficiency:

The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the

most productive directions by storing appropriate guides.

4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge

easily using automatic methods.

(4.2)
Propositional Logic (PL)- (sums on page 58 of ppt)

Propositional logic is the simplest form of logic where all the statements
are made by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is
either true or false. It is a technique of knowledge representation in logical
and mathematical form.
A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology
A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction

Syntax-
It is a well-formed sentence.
The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the
knowledge representation

Semantics-
A logic must also define the semantics or meaning of sentences. The
semantics define the truth of each sentence with respect to each possible
world.
For example, the semantics POSSIBLE WORLD for arithmetic specifies
that the sentence “x + y = 4” is true in a world where x is 2 and y is 2, but
false in a world where x is 1 and y is 1.

Formal logic-connectives-
Negation Conjunction Disjunction Implication Bidirectional

truth tables-
Tautology-
A tautology is a concept or statement that is valid in any significant manner
in pure mathematics.

Validity-
A sentence is valid if it is true in all models.
e.g., True , A ⇒ A

Well-formed-formula-
Well-Formed Formula(WFF) is an expression consisting of variables,
parentheses, and connective symbols.

Introduction to logic programming (PROLOG)

(4.3)
Predicate Logic: FOPL

First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in

artificial intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic. FOL is
sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements
in a concise way. First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or
First-order predicate logic. First-order logic is a powerful language
that develops information about the objects in a more easy way and
 can also express the relationship between those objects. First-order
logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following
things in the world:

○ Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares,

pits, wumpus, ......

○ Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is

adjacent, or n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has
color, comes between

○ Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, .....

Syntax-
The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical
expression in first-order logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order
logic are symbols.

Semantics-

Quantification-

Inference rules in FOPL

Inference in First-Order Logic is used to deduce new facts or sentences
from existing sentences.

1. Universal Generalization

● Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states

that if premise P(c) is true for any arbitrary element c in the

 universe of discourse, then we can have a conclusion as ∀ x
P(x).

● It can be represented as: .

● This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a

similar property.

● In this rule, x must not appear as a free variable.

2. Universal Instantiation:

● Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI is a

valid inference rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new

sentences.

● The new KB is logically equivalent to the previous KB.

● As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a

ground term for the variable.

● The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting a

ground term c (a constant within domain x) from ∀ x P(x) for any

object in the universe of discourse.

● It can be represented as:

3. Existential Instantiation:

● Existential instantiation is also called Existential Elimination, which is

a valid inference rule in first-order logic.

 ● It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.

● The new KB is not logically equivalent to the old KB, but it will be

satisfiable if the old KB was satisfiable.

● This rule states that one can infer P(c) from the formula

given in the form of ∃x P(x) for a new constant symbol c.

● The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a new

term for which P(c ) is true.

● It can be represented as:

4. Existential introduction

● An existential introduction is also known as an existential

generalization, which is a valid inference rule in first-order logic.

● This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of

discourse which has a property P, then we can infer that there exists
something in the universe which has the property P.

● It can be represented as:

● Example: Let's say that,

"Priyanka got good marks in English."

"Therefore, someone got good marks in English."

Forward Chaining-
➔ It is a down-up approach, as it moves from bottom to top.
 ➔ It is a process of making a conclusion based on known facts or data,
by starting from the initial state and reaching the goal state.
➔ Also called as data-driven as we reach the goal using available data.
➔ Commonly used in the expert system, such as CLIPS, business, and
production rule systems.

Backward Chaining-
A backward chaining algorithm is a form of reasoning, which starts with the
goal and works backward, chaining through rules to find known facts that
support the goal.

Resolution in FOPL-