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From Basics To More Advanced Topics

By:
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Dr Eng \ A M Abdelhay Hassan

Professor of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engn Dept.

Dept.,Faculty Of Engn., Helwan University

2023
2023-2024 (1) Industrial
‫اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺮ‪ :‬ﺟﮭﺎز ﻧﺸﺮ وﺗﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻜﺘﺎب اﻟﺠﺎﻣﻌﻲ‬
‫‪5‬‬
‫‪96‬‬
‫ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺣﻠﻮان‬
‫‪20‬‬
‫ﺣﻘﻮق اﻟﺘﺄﻟﯿﻒ ﻣﺤﻔﻮظﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﻟﻒ‬
‫‪2023‬‬
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 CONTENTS
Chapter Page
No. TOPIC No.

CONTENTS 2
3
REFERENCES
PIECE OF ADVICE 4
PART ONE
General Introduction 5
Chapter 1
Design for Fits and Tolerances 19
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
5
Fundamental Concepts 45
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Chapter 4 Working Stresses and Failure Theories 75
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PART TWO
Chapter 1 Design of Mechanical Joints 97
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Chapter 2 Design of Shafts 117

Chapter 3 Design of Keys and Knuckle Joints 133

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Chapter 4 Design of Power Screws 145

Reference Standard Tables (1) 167

Appendix A Properties of Cross-sections 168

Appendix B Design for Manufacturing 169

Appendix C Stress Concentration Factors 171

Appendix D Engineering Materials Properties 174

Appendix E Metric Threads Standard 179

Appendix F Welding Symbols 181

Appendix G Standard Metric Sizes for Power Screw 182

Appendix H Design Data for Power Screws 186

2
1. Mechanical Engineering Design, Joseph E. Shigley and Charles R. Mischke, 6th
edition, Mc Graw Hill, 2001

2. SHIGLEY’S MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN, Richard G. Budynas

and J. Keith Nisbett, 10th Ed, Published by McGraw-Hill Education, New

5
York, NY 10121, USA, 2015
96
3. Machine Elements in Mechanical Design, Robert L. Mott, 4th Ed. Pearson
20

Prentice Hall,2004
20

4. Design and Technology, James Garratt, Cambridge University Press, UK, 1995
22

5. Machine Design, R. S. Khurmi and J. K. Gupta, Eurasia Pub. House Ltd., India,
2004

6. Engineering Design, 2nd Ed., J. H. Faupel and F. E. Fisher, 1980

7. Machine Design, A. S. Hall , et., Schaum’s outline Series, Mc Graw - Hill Co.,
NY, 1961

8. Standard Handbook of Machine Design, 2nd Ed., Editors in chief Joseph E.

Shigley, Charles R. Mischke., Mc Graw Hill Co., NY, 1996.

3
Take Your Time …
and
Think Twice About the following Great Words:

 Always, Aim High

 Never, too Late

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 There is always a Better Way or Solution
20
 Once you Dream it, You can Do it
20

 Never look back

22

 Look ahead and work hard for your Great

Future in Mechanical Engineering Career

4
 1 Chapter

GENERAL
INTRODUCTION
No doubt that we live in a high technology society. In simple terms, this means
that our way of life, our standard of living and the wealth of our country are
relatively better than ever. In general, any country is dependent upon the
manufacture of sophisticated products (Such as: Automobiles, Mobiles, Houses,
Roads, Laptops, TVs, Digital devices, ... etc.), and, of course, all of these have to be
designed. Indeed, everything which has ever been manufactured was first

5
designed by someone; whom we called a “ Designer”.
But, what “makes” a designer design something?
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It happens because human beings like to be creative and when a person “sees a
problem “ or “ identifies a need ” the reaction is to try to “ do something about it
20
“ or “ design it”.
In Mechanical Engineering field, engineers try to design and manufacture
20

products through a well-defined “ roduct Cycle”; which is

defined cycle, called the “P
illustrated as shown in Fig. 1.1; which summarizes the logical sequences or steps
22

from getting the customers’ need or idea for a product, to the design process,

and finally to the manufacturing of such a product. Our main concern in this

introductory DESIGN course is mainly to FOCUS on “ I: Product Concept,

II: Engineering Design, and Working Drawing (Studied On Previous Years)
Years)”.

Figure 1.1. The Conventional Product Cycle

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

I: Product Concept

This process is considered one of the most important steps, since it converts the
Idea of the product into a set of lines or a group of 2D or 3D sketches
sketches. These
sketches are constructed using either a freehand or a Computer aided solid
drawing tools. These sketches are presenting the proposed geometrical FORM,
with the required FEATURES;
FEATURES which enable the product to FUNCTION as
required (Or 3 F’s ). This process is of an iterative nature;; which aims to get
ONE successful good presentation of the idea for the required product from
many proposed ideas – as shown in Fig 1.2.

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Figure 1.2. Brainstorming of many raw ideas for the required product

can lead to a Single successful marketable idea

During the development of a Product Concept, the Brainstorming technique is

encouraging to reach to an optimal design for the product, and enhance it. An
Concept” is shown in Fig 1.3, for
illustrative example for this process of “Product Concept”
an aluminum can crusher. A team of four designers have reached to these four
alternative product concepts for such a design or a product.

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

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Figure 1.3. Examples of product concept Developments by freehand sketches

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for an aluminum can crusher

These four alternative solutions to this problem, which are illustrated in the
above figures, are all achieving the main purpose, but with different techniques;
such as:
1. A spring-loaded
spring crusher,
2. A foot-operated
foot device,
3. A gravity-powered
gravity dead weight crusher, and
4. An arm-powered
arm lever arm crusher.

They are all seem to be okay, but with some advantageous and disadvantages (i.e.
Characteristics).

7
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

These alternative product concepts have to be evaluated according to: Ease of

use, Safety, Durability, Strength, Size, use of Standard parts and Cost, in order to
select the most appropriate design.

II: Engineering Design

Engineering mechanical design is mainly concerned with the design of machines
and their components. Machine design is defined as:

“The art of planning or devising new or improved products to

accomplish specific purposes”.
In general, a machine consists of a combination of several different mechanical

5
elements properly designed and arranged to work together, as a whole, to
96
perform a specific function, as illustrated in Fig 1.3. This main topic is studied in
TWO consecutive Terms under” Machine Elements and Mechanical Design”.
20
During the initial planning of a machine, fundamental decisions must be made
concerning loading, type of kinematic elements to be used, and correct
20

utilization of the properties of engineering materials. Economic

considerations are usually of prime importance when the design of new
22

machinery is undertaken. In general, the lowest over-all cost is desired.

Consideration should be given not only to the cost of design, manufacture, sale,
and installation, but also to the cost of servicing. The machine should of course
incorporate the necessary safety features and be of pleasing external
appearance.

The objective is to produce a machine which is not only sufficiently rugged to

function properly for a reasonable life, but is at the same time of reasonable price
to be economically feasible.
The engineer in charge of the design of a machine should not only have adequate
technical training, but must be a man of sound judgment and wide

experience, qualities which are usually acquired only after considerable time
has been spent in actual professional work.
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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Designer Background

The design of an engineering component is the application of FIVE years study

gained knowledge in different applied sciences. Good understanding of
Mechanics / Strength of materials, Theory of machines, Applied mechanics,
Properties of engineering materials, Manufacturing processes, Fluid
mechanics, Heat transfer, Engineering/Mechanical Drawing and other
applied sciences are a MUST and ESSENTIAL to the success of design for any
Machine Elements. Examine the three examples shown in Fig 1.4, to identify
which applied science you need for its design.

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Figure 1.4. Some examples of Mechanical System-based Equipment

(Which knowledge science you need to recall for Design of each ?)

The basic approach is that the design must be safe and economical. That is,
element designed is capable of undergoing the stress in service without failure.

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The proper size, material and finish can be arrived at, but it is not necessary that
the strength alone is the consideration of a design. For example production
requirements, assembly, handling, processing accessibility and ease of
adjustment, may considerably influence the designer’s decision.

The present day economies put more stresses on the designer to produce a part
as cheap as possible. To justify his existence the designer is always reminded
that the lowest possible cost should be incurred without sacrificing; strength
requirements.

Design of Machine Elements

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This textbook, will not deal with the broader aspects of the design of complete
machines, but will attempt to explain the fundamental concepts required for the
correct design of the separate elements which compose any machine.
20
The principles of design are, of course, universal. The same theory or equations
20

may be applied to a very small part, as in an instrument, or to a larger part

used in a piece of heavy equipment. In no case, however, should mathematical
calculations be looked upon as absolute and final. They are all subject to the
22

accuracy of the various assumptions, which must necessarily be made in

engineering work.

Sometimes only, a portion of the total number of parts in a machine are

designed on the basis of analytic calculations. The form and size of the
remaining parts are then usually determined by practical considerations. On
the other hand, if the machine is very expensive, or if its weight is a factor, as in
airplanes, design computations may then be made for almost all the parts.

The purpose of the design calculations is, of course, to attempt to predict the
stress or deformation in the part in order that it may safely carry the loads,
which will be imposed upon it, and that it may last for the expected life of the

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

(a-1) Industrial Crane (b-2) Overhead Crane

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(c) Mechanical Press/ Bending / Shearing Machines

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(d) Landing Gear

Figure 1.5. Examples of Designed mechanical equipment in almost all fields

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

machine. All calculations are, of course, dependent on the physical properties of

the construction materials as determined by laboratory tests.
Shortly, a part or a machine element (Fig 1-6) is said “it was designed” IF and

Only IF the following FIVE aspects were precisely defined:

1- The GEOMETRICAL SHAPE,

2- The SIZE for each contained feature,

3- The assigned specific MATERIAL,

4- The LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY, and

5. The Factor of Safety.

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Design of machine elements is an integral part of the larger and more general
field of mechanical design. Designers and design engineers create devices or
systems to satisfy specific needs. Mechanical devices typically involve moving
20
parts that transmit power and accomplish specific patterns of motion.
Mechanical systems are composed of several mechanical devices.
20
22

Figure 1.6. Each designed machine element of the above examples is having:
Specific Geometrical Shape, Size, Material with a pre-set factor of safety to
SAFELY carry its assign load in harmony with Other machine elements

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Think about the many fields in which you can use mechanical design- see Fig 1.5.
Discuss these fields with your instructor and with your classmates who are
studying with you. Talk with people who are doing mechanical design in local
industries. Try to visit their companies if possible, or meet designers and design
engineers at meetings of professional societies. Consider the following fields
where mechanical products are designed and produced.

Simple Machines

Back to the early years of studies, SIX different types of Simple Machines were
studied. These Simple machines are basics and useful in creating product
concepts, and they can make a physical job easier by changing the magnitude or

5
the direction of the force exerted to do work. An illustration of these simple
96
machines is shown with examples in Fig 1.7. Notice that compound Machine
contain two or more simple machines working together to perform the required
function.
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20
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Figure 1.7. The 6 Basic Simple Machines that can be partially used
In all Mechanical Engineering Design

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Design Procedure

Design is a creative art, which starts with a need or an idea, and ends with a
three-dimensional solid object or a design. Between the start and obtaining the
actual design, there are logical steps, the engineer designer has to follow to
achieve his/her final goal of bringing the required design into the market.

One way for practical design procedure is to follow the following logical
sequences or steps:

1. State the main purpose of design, considering special requirements and

limitations.

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2. Select the possible solutions using product concept process with the aid

of 2D/3D freehand sketching, applying the 3’Fs and KISS concepts.

20
3. Determine the nature of loading (i.e. static, dynamic, shock, thermal,

uniform distributed or non-uniform distributed, cyclic, .. etc.).

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4. Select the appropriate material for each element.

5. Determine the size and shape for each element through force analysis,
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stress analysis, applying appropriate Design Failure Theories.

6. Modify the element in shape and size to facilitate the methods of

manufacturing (DFM) and assembly (DFA).

7. Make the detail drawings and assembly drawings, specifying properly all

dimensions, tolerances, materials, heat treatments, and levels of surface

finish.

Functions tell what the device must do using in general, non-quantitative

statements that employ action phrases such as “ to support a load”, “to lift a
crate”, “to transmit power”, or “to hold two structural members together”.

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Design REQUIREMENTS are detailed, usually quantitative statements of

expected performance levels, environmental conditions in which the device must
operate. Design LIMITATIONS could be on space or weight, environment, or
available materials and components that may be used.

For those designers who do start at the beginning, the checklist in Table 1.1 is an
example that may be used to organize the information required to define the
design problem and aid in establishing design goals.

Table 1.1: Design Checklists

1. FUNCTION:  A simple statement of
the objective

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2. DETAILED  Required performance
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FUNCTIONAL
REQUIREMENTS:
stated numerically

3. OPERATING  Power supplies  Life

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CONSTRAINTS:
 Operating procedures  Reliability
 Maintenance procedures  Other operating
constraints
20

4. MANUFACTURING  Manufacturing processes  Labor available

CONSTRAINTS: available  Delivery program
 Development facilities  Number required
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available  Permissible
 Other manufacturing manufacturing cost
constraints

5. ENVIRONMENT:  Ambient temperature  Installation limitations

 Ambient pressure  Expected operators
 Climate  Effect on other parts of the
 Acceleration parent system
 Contaminants  Vibration
 Other environmental
factors

6. OTHER  Applicable governmental  Applicable standards

CONSTRAINTS: regulations  Possible litigation
 Legal requirements —
patents Possible

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

REMEMBER THAT:

GOOD DESIGN

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WORK WELL LOOK GOOD SAFE to USE QUALITY for MONEY
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Very Simple …

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

PROBLEMS
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

1- Clearly define what is meant by the term “DESIGN”.

2- List the necessary design considerations during its initial planning.

3- Name some of the essential applied sciences needed for designer.

5
4- What is the purpose of design calculations?
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5- List the steps for design procedure.
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6- Consider, that you are the designer responsible for the design of a new

consumer product, make freehand sketches for the Product Concept for
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each of the following products, Specifying its Function, Requirements

22

and Limitations, with the aspects of KISS and the required 3Fs .

a) A turning handles to operate a machine driven by a Power Screw.

b) A turning handles to operate a machine driven by a Power Screw

within limited space (Partial turn with less 3600 )

c) A desktop free-holding bookstand capable of height adjustment.

d) A universal adjustable holding stand for a magnifying glass.

e) A manual Hole Punching machine for paper works.

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 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

f) A Folding light-weight chair.

g) A Telescopic adjustable tray stand.

h) A free Vee-belt pulley stand.

i) A portable scooter.

j) A manual hand-held nailer.

k) LCD movable vertical stand.

l) A Hex spanner wrench to tight/loose Hex bolts and nuts.

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7- Look around, and pick an example for a real design or a product,
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specifying its Function, Requirements and Limitations.
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8- Design and implement the first model or prototype for:

a) A manual Rope wench for lifting 2 tons weight for 5 meters height.
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b) A Hydraulic press for sleeve/bearing fittings of 5 tons load capacity

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and gap adjustment of 100 :1000 mm.

c) A Clamping device for 50 mm cubic metallic workpiece.

d) A mobile elevator platform carrying 2 persons up to 2 meter height

level for maintenance purposes.

e) An aluminum can crusher.

f) A landing gear for motor tricycle.

Note: “Start your Idea of Product Concept by a Schematic sketch, then Give

each element a Thickness or a Depth.”

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 Chapter 2

DESIGN FOR
FITS AND TOLERANCES

2.1 Introduction

Today’s technologies require manufacturing products with a pre-specified quality. To

5
achieve a certain degree of quality, designer has to control both of the geometrical
96
shapes and the dimensions (See Fig 2.1), especially during the design process.

Manufacturing part with EXACT geometries or dimensions is very costly and is not
20

necessary. What is more, it is impossible to manufacture a large numbers of parts of

the same size in a mass production. Hence, to facilitate manufacturing and assembling
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of various parts; dimensions of these parts must be specified so that they will be

interchangeable. Interchangeability; requires that any two randomly selected

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parts can fit together without any additional adjustments.

Figure 2.1. Designer has to control both of the Geometrical Shape

and the Dimensions or Sizes for the Product required quality

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

Figure 2.2. Cost of Tolerances from different machining operations

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Designer; is the one who is not only defines the size and the function of a specific
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designed part, but is also responsible to specify such permissible variations or

tolerances in different features of his designed Element. Dimensions should be given as

20

large a tolerance as possible without interfering with the function of the part.

Economically, tolerances are having a great direct impact on production costs, as shown
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in Fig 2.2; where manufacturing to close or tight tolerances is more expensive than
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open tolerances. In order to control variations in size or tolerances of the manufactured

parts, a Limit System is adopted and used. The following sections shade some lights on

the different elements and aspects of such a system.

Take for example the assembly of Fig2.3; where a shaft is mounted on TWO Roller

Bearings, and is carrying a timing unit. Concentrate on Relative position and motion

between any two elements.

Illustrative Example for what dimensions variations DO foe the required function

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
2.2 Tolerancing

The techniques of allowing pre-specified variation in critical dimensions of parts to

ensure manufacturing and interchangeability are called tolerancing. Each dimension is

allowed a certain degree of variation within a specified zone, called tolerance. For

example, a shown dimension of 48  0.12, yields a tolerance of 0.24 mm, as illustrated in

Figure 2.3.

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.3. Pre-specified limiting sizes of an object, (a) min size, (b) nominal size
and (c) max size
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Dimensions should be given as large tolerance as possible without interfering with the
22

function of the part. Economically, tolerances are having a great direct impact on

production costs ( see Figure 2.2); where manufacturing to close or tight tolerances is

more expensive than open tolerances. Selecting of tolerance values (or Tolerance Band

/ Tolerance grade / or International Tolerance IT ) mainly depends on the application

and the basic size of the dimension. In order to control variations in size or tolerances of

the manufactured parts, a Limit System is adopted and used.

2.3 Tolerances and Limits

Several acceptable methods of specifying tolerances are shown in Figure 2.4. When the

notation of “plus - and - minus” tolerancing is used, tolerances are applied or attached

to the basic size or dimension. When dimensions allow variation in only one direction,

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
the tolerancing is unilateral. On the other hand, tolerancing that permits variation in

either direction from basic dimension is bilateral. Tolerances may also be given in the

form of limits; that is, two dimensions are given to the specified feature, that represent

the largest and the smallest sizes permitted for such a feature of the part. The large limit

is placed either above or to the left, while the plus limit is placed above the minus limits,

as illustrated in Figure 2.4. Figure 2.5 illustrates a practical applications for these

methods.

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Figure 2.4. Methods of positioning and indicating tolerances

in unilateral, bilateral, and limit forms.
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Figure 2.5. Applications of different tolerance dimensioning Methods

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
2.3-1 Metric Definitions of Limits and Fits

This section will cover the metric limits and fits system as recommended by the

International Standards Organization (ISO), which has been presented by the ANSI B4.2

in the American Standards. These fits usually apply to cylinders - holes and shafts. Keep

in mind the term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft, but it is also

used to designate external dimension of a part; such as heights and widths. Also, the

term hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole, but it is also used to

designate internal dimension of a part; such as slots and grooves. Some of the

definitions for the terms used in tolerancing and limiting system given below and are

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illustrated in Figs 2.6 and 2.7.
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BASIC SIZE: is the size from which the limits or deviations are assigned, and is

considered the zero line.

20

LIMITS: are the extreme permissible dimensions of a feature of a part. The maximum

permissible size is called “ upper limit “, whereas the minimum size is called “ lower
22

limit” .

ACTUAL SIZE: is the measured size; which must be within the limits to be accepted.

TOLERANCES: is the difference between the maximum and minimum allowable sizes of

a single part.

DEVIATION: is the difference between the hole (or shaft) size and basic size (or zero

line); where maximum size gives Upper Deviation and minimum size gives Lower

Deviation.

ALLOWANCE: is the difference between the minimum hole size (max material

condition) and the maximum shaft size (max material condition) , and it can be positive

or negative value.

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

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Figure 2.6. Metric Tolerance Terminologies
20
20
22

Figure 2.7. Allowance is the difference between maximum material conditions

of Hole and Shaft

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
FUDAMENTAL DEVIATION (δ): is used to locate the tolerance zone relative to the

basic size (see Fig 2.8), and is represented by 27 alphabetical letters. UPPERCASE

LETTERS- A, B, C, /Z are use for tolerancing of HOLES, and lowercase letters; a, b, c,

/z , are used for shafts as illustrated in Fig 2.9. Numerical values for fundamental

deviation associated with each letter are calculated by the formulas listed in Table 2.1.

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20

Figure 2.8. Location of the Tolerance zone from the basic size is represented by
The Fundamental Deviation
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22

Figure 2.9. 27 Fundamental Deviations ( δF )for Holes and Shafts

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
Table 2.1. Shafts Calculation Formulas for the Fundamental Deviations

(Same are for Holes but with opposite signs)

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20
20
22

D is “the geometric mean D  Ax B , where A and B the limits values for the
basic size range that are listed in Table 2.3. ”

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
Table 2.2. Intended Applications of the different International Tolerance grades

IT - Grade Intended Applications

IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, IT3,

For Production of gauges and instruments
IT4, IT5, IT6

IT 5, IT6,
For Precision and general Industry
IT7, IT8, I9, IT10, IT11, IT12:

IT11, IT14, IT15, IT16 For Semi finished products

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Table 2.3. International Tolerance (IT)Grades

(ISO 919- 1993 Part I)

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20
22

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
INTERNATIONAL TOLERANCE (IT) GRADE: is a group of tolerances that vary in

accordance with the basic size and provide a uniform level of accuracy within a given

grade. ISO 286 implements Eighteen (18) grades of accuracy to satisfy the requirements

of different industries; IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2,/.. IT16, each of which has its own

applications as listed in Table 2.2, for dimensions steps from 1 mm to 500 mm.

Worked Example 1:

Determine the limit dimensions for 46 f 9

Answer 1:
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The tolerance 46 f9 means: A shaft has a basic size of 46 mm , a Fundamental deviation
20

of f and an International Tolerance Grade of IT9.

The geometric mean size D is

20

D  30 x 50  38.73 mm since 46 lies in the range 30-50 mm in Table 2.3

22

From Table 2.1 of Fundamental Deviation

f   5.5 ( D) 0.41
  5.5 ( 38.73 ) 0.41   24.63 or  25 microns

From Table 2.2, the International Tolerance IT9 for 46 mm is :

IT9 = 62 microns (or um )

Thus the limits for the given shaft size

are as determined below:

Upper Limit ( or max size ) = 46 + (-0.025) = 45.975 mm

And

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
Lower Limit ( or min size ) = 46 + (-0.025 - 0.062 ) = 45.013 mm

Notice that: 45.990 is NOT equal OR equivalent to 45.99 mm.

2.4 Tolerances of Mating Parts

5
Many parts are assembled, coupled or fit together within a prescribed degree of
96
accuracy of either looseness (clearance), or Tightness (interference), as illustrated in
20

the examples of Fig 2.10, and exaggerated as in Fig 2.11. The type of fitting between two

mating parts does not left for chance, but it is pre-specified by the designer according to
20

the functionality of the assembled component. Proper tolerancing of mating parts can

lead to the required type of fit.

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Figure 2.10. Many machine elements are assembled together to perform

a specific function,
what would be the values of x and y to ensure the required type of assembly fit ?

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

(a) Mating parts are easy (b) Parts are fit with difficulty
to fit together (loose) (tight)

Figure 2.11. Type of assembly fit between two mating parts

2.4-1 Type of Fit

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Fit describes the working condition between a mating shaft and hole. Depending on the

mutual position of tolerance zones of the coupled parts, THREE types of fit can be
20

distinguished (see Fig 2.12):

A. Clearance Fit: It is a fit that always enables a clearance between the hole and shaft
20

in the coupling. The lower limit size of the hole is greater or at least equal to the

upper limit size of the shaft.

22

B. Transition Fit: It is a fit where (depending on the actual sizes of the hole and

shaft) both clearance and interference may occur in the coupling. Tolerance zones

of the hole and shaft partly or completely interfere.

Figure 2.12. Different types of fit; (A) Clearance Fit (Never meet), (B) Transition Fit
(Overlap each other) and (C) Interference Fit(Never crosses each other).

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DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

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Figure 2.13. Some illustrative examples for Interference Fits
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C. Interference Fit: It is a fit always ensuring some interference between the hole

and shaft in the coupling elements as shown in Fig 2.13. The upper limit size of the
20

hole is smaller or at least equal to the lower limit size of the shaft.
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2.4-2 System of Fits

Although there can be generally coupled parts without any tolerance zones, only two

methods of coupling of holes and shafts are recommended due to constructional,

technological and economic reasons.

A. Hole basis system: The desired clearances and interferences in the fit are

achieved by combinations of various shaft tolerance zones with the hole

tolerance zone "H" (see Figure 2.14A). In this system of tolerances and fits, the

lower deviation of the hole is always equal to zero.

31
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

Figure 2.14. Main systems of fits (A) Hole Basis and (B) Shaft Basis

5
B. Shaft basis system: The desired clearances and interferences in the fit are
96
achieved by combinations of various hole tolerance zones with the shaft

tolerance zone "h" (see Figure 2.14B). In this system of tolerances and fits, the
20

upper deviation of the hole is always equal to zero.

Now, one can have a lot of combination of fits ( 27 Holes/Shafts for each there are 18
20

Tolerance Grades) which can be Basic Hole or Basic Shaft systems. In engineering

applications, there are a few of preferred fits for each type. Table 2.4 shows a list of such
22

recommended fits for hole basis system. Figure 2.15 shows an assembly of a sleeve

bearing with a shaft ( Same as in Fig 2.10b above).

Figure 2.15. An assembly of a shaft inside a sleeve bearing

inserted in a housing body,
(resembling of the sketch of Fig 2.10b)

32
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
Young designers with less experience are using the ISO recommended preferred fits

that are listed in Table 2.4 and their tolerance values shown in Table 2.5 according to the

British Standard number 4500A-1970 for step sizes up to 500 mm, as a guideline for

their fit designs; which are commonly used in engineering practice.

Table 2.4 Recommended ISO Preferred Fits and their Applations

Symbol of
Examples of application
fit
Clearance Fit
Precision sliding H7/h6 Sealing rings, bearing covers, milling cutters on milling
fit mandrels, other easily removable parts.
Close running fit H7/g6 Spline shafts, clutches, movable gears in change gear
trains, etc.

5
rmal running fit H7/f7 Sleeve bearings with high revolution, bearings on machine
96 tool spindles.
Easy running fit H8/e8 Sleeve bearings with medium revolution, grease lubricated
bearings of wheel boxes, gears sliding on shafts, sliding
blocks.
Loose running fit H8/d9 Sleeve bearings with low revolution, plastic material
20
bearings.
Slide running fit H8/cll Oil seals (Simmerrings) with metal housing (fit in housing
and contact surface on shaft), multi-spline shafts.
20

Interference Fit
Shrink fit H8/u8 Wheel sets, tyres, bronze crowns on worm wheel
Heavy drive fit H7/s6 hubs, couplings under certain conditions, etc.
Press fit H7/r6 Coupling on shaft ends, bearing bushes in hubs, valve
22

Medium press fit H7/p6 seats, gear wheels.

Transition Fit
Light press fit H7/n6 Gears and worm wheels, bearing bushes, shaft and wheel
assembly with feather key.
Force fit H7/m6 Parts on machine tools that must be changed without
damage, e.g., gears, belt pulleys, couplings, fit bolts, inner
ring of ball bearings.
Push fit H7/k6 Belt pulleys, brake pulleys, gears and couplings as well as
inner rings of ball bearings on shafts for average loading
conditions.
Easy push fit H7/j6 Parts which are to be frequently dismantled but are secured
by keys, e.g., pulleys, hand-wheels, bushes, bearing shells,
pistons on piston rods, change gear trains.

33
 34

22
20
20
9 65
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
2.5 Standardization and Preferred Numbers for Basic Size

Various International Organizations have established standard specification almost for

every thing – see Fig 2.16 (i.e. Numbers, Materials, Raw materials, Bolts, Screws, ..etc. )

that are commonly used in engineering design.

5
(a) The Beauty of Standardization(Cut Down Verities !)
96
20
20

(a) Raw Materials

22

(b ) Fasteners(Bolts, Nuts,
Washers, Circlips..)

(f) Power transmitting

Belts

(d) Light Bulbs

(g) Rolling Bearings

(h) Clothes
(e) Writing Sheet Papers

(b)Some examples of applying Standardization

in almost everything that man can know

Figure 2.16. Standardization is a way of LIFE, makes live much more ersier.

35
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
Technical Specifications are always referred to some well respected international

organizations or societies, such as:

1- SAE ( Society of Automotive Engineering, USA),

2- ASTM ( American Society for Testing and Materials),
3- AISI ( American Iron and Steel Institute ),
4- ASA ( American Standard Association ),
5- ISA ( the International federation of national Standardizing Association ),
6- ISO ( International Standards Organization, France),
7- BS ( British Standards ),
8- DIN ( German Standards ), and there are more/
The purpose of standardization is to bring uniformity and to minimize variety.

5
Designers can make use of standard parts in their design to cutoff the number of needed
96
elements to be fully designed. Also, Standardization helps in manufacturing of machines
20

quickly and economically. Additionally, it makes the repair and maintenance of

machines simple and economical.

20

Preferred Numbers are used in Standardization, which reduce unnecessary variations

in the sizes of components. Preferred Numbers are a series of numbers in geometric

22

progression of common ratio Ø. The basic series of Preferred Numbers are R5, R10,

R20, R40 and sometimes R80 ( R20 means the 20th root for number 10 0r Ø =
20
10=1.12 ).

( The symbol R stands as an attribute to the French mathematician “ Captain Renard “,

the first man to suggest and use these series).

Table 2.6 shows the Basic Series of these Preferred Numbers. They can be extended

infinitely upwards or downward by multiplying or dividing repeatedly by 10. To reduce

expenses, designers should, where it possible, to select basic sizes from these series;

which correspond to standard stock sizes for round, square, and hexagonal metal

products.

36
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
Table 2.5 The Basic Series of Preferred Numbers

(They can be extended Upward or downward by multiplying or dividing by 10’s)

R5 R10 R20 R40

Ø = 1.6 Ø = 1.25 Ø = 1.12 Ø = 1.06
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.06
1.12 1.12
1.18
1.25 1.25 1.25
1.32
1.40 1.40 1.40
1.50
1.60 1.60 1.60 1.60

5 1.70
96
1.80 1.80
1.90
2.00 2.00 2.00
2.12
20

2.24 2.24
2.36
2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
20

2.65
2.80 2.80
3.00
3.15 3.15 3.15
22

3.35
3.55 3.55
3.75
4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
4.25
4.50 4.50
4.75
5.00 5.00 5.00
5.30
5.60 5.60
6.00
6.30 6.30 6.30 6.30
6.70
7.10 7.10
7.50
8.00 8.00 8.00
8.50
9.00 9.00
9.50
10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00

37
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

5
96
20

Figure 2.17. Arithmetical tolerance line-up calculation

20

2.6 Tolerance Chains (Accumulation of Tolerances)

22

Design engineer has to be aware of components that are fitted together, especially, size

deviations accumulate – Figure 2.17. In order to assess the resulting clearance or

interference, tolerance line-up calculations are performed. Arithmetical tolerance

calculations are based on extreme cases (worst cases) when all sizes are at their

favorable or unfavorable limit of size. The procedure for an arithmetical tolerance line-

up calculation is as follows:

1- Define the dimension scheme, showing all dimensions and their tolerances that

form the chain, i.e. all dimensions that contribute to the clearance or interference;

2- Dimensions whose upper limits lead to an increase in the closing dimension are

drawn in the positive direction and others in the negative direction;

38
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
3- The arithmetical sum of the maximum limits of size of the positive chain links and

the minimum limits of size of the negative chain links, gives the maximum value

of the closing dimension (maximum clearance, minimum interference).

4- The arithmetical sum of the minimum limits of size of the positive chain links

and the maximum limits of size of the negative chain links, gives the minimum

value of the closing dimension (minimum clearance, maximum interference).

5
96
20
20
22

39
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

PROBLEMS
Solve the following assigned problems on separate sheets submitted with the supplied report cover.

1.1 What is meant by the following terms:

Tolerance, Fit, Interchangeability and Standardization?

1.2 What are the differences between 25 H7, 25 h7, and 25 H7/ f 8 ?

1.3 Find the values of allowance, hole tolerance and shaft tolerance for the following dimensions of mated
parts according to the hole basis system.

HOLE: 37.50 mm
5 SHAFT: 37.47 mm
96
37.52 mm 37.45 mm

1.4 Determine the limiting dimensions for the 45 H7 / g6 fit, and represent them in a block tolerance diagram.
20

1.5 Discuss the design differences between the following two assemblies.
20
22

1.6 Examine the assembly below for a pushing in a plate, and discuss why some dimensions are having
tolerances, while other do not have.

1.7 Do the same as in Problem 2.6, for the shown machine element of Figure 2.5.

40
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
1.8 Specify the different fits used in the shaft assembly shown below.

1.9 A 30 mm diameter steel shaft is running inside a solid bronze sleeve bearing at easy running fit. The bearing

5
is fitted with light press fit in its housing. Mark the ISO tolerances for the sleeve bearing and the shaft.
96
20
20

1.10 Figure below, shows a Sub-Assembly for a Belt Drive Unit. It is required to DO the following:
a) An assembly drawing for such a Belt Drive Assembly (1:1 Scale),
22

b) Detail Drawing for EACH element in this unit(1:1 Scale) .

c) the type of fit for each shaft and hole combination,

d) the limit sizes for each hole and shaft, and

e) the maximum and minimum allowance for each shaft and hole combination

1.11 A journal of a basic size of 75 mm rotates in a bearing. The tolerance for both the shaft and the bearing is
0.085 mm, and the required allowance is 0.1 mm. Determine the dimensions of the shaft and the bearing

bore.

f) A gear has to be shrunk fit on a shaft of basic size 120mm. Select an appropriate fit for such

an assembly, then Determine the limit dimensions for the gear and the shaft.

g) Select a standard size for a shaft between 32 and 55 mm diameters.

h) Design a set of Nails of at least 6 standard lengths in the range between 15 and 300 mm.

41
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
1.12 Determine the Limit sizes for the resulting gap (s) for the spur gear assembly
shown below.

5
96
20

1.13 Figures below, show a Sub-Assembly for Belt Drive Units. Your instructor will assign ONE to work on
20

it to do the following requirements:

a) An assembly drawing for such a Belt Drive Assembly (2:1 Scale – A2 drawing Sheet size),
22

b) Detail Drawing for EACH element in this unit(1:1 Scale) .

c) the type of fit for each shaft and hole combination,

d) the limit sizes for each hole and shaft, and

e) the maximum and minimum allowance for each shaft and hole combination

(A) Vee - Belt drive assembly unit

42
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1

5
96
20
20
22

(B) Flat Belt drive assembly unit

43
DESIGN FOR FITS AND TOLERANCES Part: 1
1.14 Select the appropriate fits for the identified fits shown in the following assembly:

(a) Sleeve-type Bearing

5
96
20
20
22

(b) Driving shaft with mounted Ball Bearing

(c) Gear-Bearing- Shaft Assembply

44
 Chapter 3

FUNDAMENTAL
CONCEPTS
3-1 Mechanical Loading

A mechanical machine is designed to perform a specific function through carrying,

applying or/and transmitting specific loads, as shown in Fig 3-1. Four basic types of

loads; which are: Axial Force (Compression or Tension), Bending Moment, Torque

5
Moment and Direct shear Force – see Fig 3-2. An engineering component may be
96
subjected to one or more of these types of loads. The nature of each type of load can

be static, cyclic or shock, as shown in fig 3-3. A static dead load is defined as one
20

which does not vary in magnitude, direction. or point of application e.g. tightening of

bolts, centrifugal forces on a disc rotating at a fixed speed etc.

20
22

(a) A rolling machine

(b) Manual Press

Figure 3-1. Examples of some Machines having specific function and working loads

45
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

5
96
20

Figure 3-2. Basic types of Mechanical Loads

20
22

Figure 3-3. Examples of the Nature of Mechanical Loads

46
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

Consequently the induced stresses in the members are also constant. The cyclic load

is also called repeated load or fatigue load as the stresses induced vary in magnitude

and/or direction. When the load applied is sudden, the energy given by the shock load

is absorbed by the system and the effect of load applied suddenly is twice as severe

as an equal static load Fig 3-3, illustrates these loads in additional to a general load

scheme; which is continuously changing its magnitude and direction.

The following sections are a Quick Review of the simple basic loads and their

5
induced internal stresses; which are of great help in the sequence of the design process
96
shown in Fig 3-4. Such, involved loads are acting individually or in a combined

manner on each machine element. Now, the next step after defining the product
20

concept (i.e. Shape of assembly and how elements are connected) is to define the type

of each load acting on each element and their nature in a process called “ Force
20

Analysis”, as schematically illustrated in Fig 3-4.

22

3-2 Static Equilibrium

When a body is at rest, or in motion with constant velocity, the external forces

acting upon it are in equilibrium. This statement applies to the body as a whole or to

any portion of it. When a force analysis is to be made, it is sometimes

advantageous to consider only a portion of the body, i.e A Free Body Diagram, which

can be obtained by assuming that cutting planes are passed through the body at the

desired locations as shown in Fig. 3-5. The internal forces that were acting at the

locations of the cuts must then be represented as a system of external forces properly

distributed to maintain equilibrium of the separate parts and to preserve the original

state of stress in the material. When a problem is analyzed in this manner, the loading

47
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

• Design Product Concept

Start • (Assembled Machine Elements)

• Free - Body - Diagram

First • (Indiviual Machine Element)

• Force Analysis
Second • (Diffents loads acting on the Element)

• Stress Analysis
Third • (Each Individual Stress and their Combinations)

• Design ( Shape - Size - Load Capacity - Material - Factor of safety)

Final • (Applying Failure Theories)

5
96
Figure 3-4. Sequence followed in Design calculations
20

will consist a System entirely of external Forces and Moments. It is not necessary
20

to consider the internal stresses.

Statical equilibrium means that both forces and moments are in balance. When a body
22

is in equilibrium, the sum of the components of the forces in any given direction must

be equal to zero. Likewise, the moments about any given line as an axis must be

equal to zero. Thus, equations for static equilibrium require the fulfillment of the

following conditions:

P  0
i
i  x, y, z (3-1)
M  0 i

If the body is undergoing acceleration, inertia forces must be included in these

equations of static equilibrium. Fig. 3-6 illustrates, an example of using the static

equilibrium equations to determine the internal reactions at a section along the vertical

column; closer to its fixed end.

48
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

5
96
Figure 3-5 Sectioning a loaded machine structure for determining

internal forces and moments.

20
20
22

Figure 3-6 Application of static equilibrium conditions for determining

internal forces and moments.

49
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-3 Basic Elementary Stresses and their Distributions

Once all the internal reactions (i.e. Forces and Moments) are determined

at the most critical section or sections, the corresponding internal unit

reactions (i.e. Stresses) are determined. The following subsections are

brief presentation of such internal stresses and their distribution along its

assumed critical section(s).

These stresses are derived using the following assumptions:

5
a) Material of the body has continuous structure,
96
b) Material is homogenous and isotropic,
20

c) Material is linearly elastic or following Hook’s law,

d) There are no internal stresses prior to loading,

20

e) Load is static.
22

3-3.1 Axial Tensile and Compressive Stresses

The simplest type of load “P” is a direct pull or push, known technically as tension or

compression respectively, and are schematically shown in Fig 3-7. The example of

tension is the force provided by the weight (P) attached to a straight bar, as shown in

Fig 3-8, where a compression by the roof load supported by a pillar. Stress is defined

as „the intensity of internal forces per unit area”. The compressive or tensile stresses

set up in a component under compressive or tensile load is given by the expression:

Force
Stress 
Area

P
or   (3-2)
A

50
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

5
96
20

Figure 3-7. Axial (a) Tensile Load(+P), (b) Uniform Tensile Stress Distribution,
20

(c) Compression Load(-P), and (d) Uniform Compressive Stress Distribution.

22

Figure 3-8. An example of Axial load and its Uniform stress distribution over

a cross-section of the loaded bar.

51
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

Figure 3-9. Axial Elongation or Deformation

5
The total change of length in a uniform body caused by an axial load is called the
96
deformation, (l), as in Fig 3-9. If the deformation is divided by the original length,

1, of the body, the result is the deformation per unit length, and is called elongation
20

or strain, . It can be represented mathematically by the equation

20

l
  (3-3)
l
22

Although elongation  is a dimensionless number, or a ratio, it is customary to speak

of it in terms of mm per mm, or inches per inch.

For most materials used in engineering, stress and strain are directly proportional;

when this condition exists, the material is said to follow Hooke's law. The linear

relationship between stress and strain can be represented by an equation if a constant

of proportionality E is introduced as follows:

  E.  (3-4)

Constant E is called the modulus of elasticity, or Young's modulus, for the material. It

has the dimension of stress and can be visualized as the tensile stress that would cause

a body to double in length,  = 1.0, provided the material would remain elastic.

52
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

Substitution of Eq. (3-2) and (3-3) into Eq. (3-4) gives the important relationship:

P. L
L (3-5)
E.A
Equations (3-3) and (3-4) are valid either for tension or compression. Tension stress,

Fig. (3-3) which produces increase of length is considered positive, whereas

compressive stress results in decrease in length is considered negative.

In addition to the deformation of materials in the direction of the applied force,

another remarkable property can be observed in all solids materials, namely, lateral or

5
transverse direction. This phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 3-10. Lateral strains are
96
in proportion to the main axial strain, and is defined as:


20

Lateral Strain
    l (3-6)
Axial Strain 
a
20

The constant of proportionality, ( is called Poisson’s ratio ), is a definite property of

material, and having a value in the neighborhood of 0.25 to 0.35.

22

Figure 3-10. Lateral contraction (a), and expansion (b) of solids

subjected to axial forces (Poisson effect)

53
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-3.2. Bending Stresses

In the design of machine parts, bending or flexure is often to be taken in

consideration, for example, steel rope passing around the sheave, the shaft carrying a

rotating flywheel etc.

Let us consider a simply supported beam subjected to bending moment load as shown

in the Fig. 3-11. Bending produces two kinds of normal or direct stresses i.e. tension

on one side of the neutral plane and compression on the other side. The intensity of

stress is gradually decreased as the neutral plane is reached and is maximum at the

5
outermost fibers on either side of the neutral plane. It can be shown that:
96
M .y
   (3-7)
I
20

Where:

M: Bending moment
20

I: Second moment of inertia.

: Bending stress (tension or compression).

22

y: Distance of the point being considered from the neutral axis.

Maximum bending stress  max occurs on the outermost fibers, as shown in Fig. 3-

11, where y = ymax.

Figure 3-11. Normal Stresses caused by bending moment load M.

54
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-3.3 Shear Stresses

This type of stress differs from the Normal Stresses (tensile or compressive) in that

the stressed plane or the shear plane lies parallel with the direction of stress rather

than perpendicular to it, as in the case of Axial or Normal stress. The example of

shear stress is the well - known phenomena of rivet failure and the stress in cotter

joint. The illustration below - Fig. 3-12, shows the failure of riveted joints in single

and double shear. Assuming that the stresses act in the plane of these cuts are

uniformly distributed, one obtains a relation for the shear stress as follows:

 
P
5 (3-8)
96
A
s
where, A.s is the total shearing cross sectional areas under shear.
20
20
22

Figure 3-12. Loading conditions causing shearing stresses, of

(c) Single Shearing , and (f) Double Shearing.

55
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-3.4 Torsional Stresses

For hollow or solid circular shafts the torsion or twisting produces pure shear. The

twist or torsion for these sections tends to move the fibers one across the other and the

shear stress is given by the well - known torsion equation:

T .r
  (3-9)
J

5
96
20
20
22

Figure 3-13. Variation in strain and stress in a circular

member subjected to torque load T.

Where:

T Torque to which circular shaft is subjected.

J Polar moment of inertia of section.

 Shearing stress in the shaft material.

r Radial distance from the polar axis of rotation of the shaft to

the point at which the shear stress is being determined.

As shown in Fig. 3-13, the maximum value of the shearing stress occurs at the outer

surface, where r = D/2 .

56
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-3.5 Transverse Shearing Stress in Beams

In addition to the bending stresses (Eq 3-9), the loads on a beam may also cause
shearing stresses between the longitudinal layers. The designer is interested in the
magnitude of these stresses, since machine parts made of ductile materials are usually
designed on the basis of shearing stress.

If a vertical load is supported by a stack of laminated strips, the shearing effect is as

shown in Fig. (3-14b). In a solid beam the elements do not slide on each other, but the
shearing stress tending to make them do so is present.

5
Figure (3-14d) shows a portion cut from a beam (X in length) of uniform cross
96
section by two adjacent vertical planes and a horizontal plane, located at a distance

above the neutral plane. Bending stress 1 is acting on the cross section of the left
end of the slice, while stress 2 is acting on the right.
20

To maintain equilibrium in the horizontal direction, shearing stress  must act toward
20

the left on horizontal surface.

22

Figure 3-14. Transverse shearing stresses due to bending moment.

This shear is necessary because the normal stresses from the bending moment are

assumed to be larger on the left surface than on the right surface.

57
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

The shear stress  at a point y - distance from the neutral axis within the beam is:

V
  A .y (3-11)
I .b a
where:

V Acting shear force at the section.

I Second moment of inertia.

b beam width at the section of consideration.

Aa y. first moment of area above the plane at

5
which shear stress is to be computed.
96
20

The shearing stress on the vertical end surfaces at distance v1 from the neutral axis is

also equal to the horizontal shear stress  as determined by Eq (3-11).

20

Within reasonable limits, the presence of the shearing stress has no effect on the value

of the bending stress, and vice versa ( Do You Know Why ?).
22

In general, the shearing deformation is similar to shearing stresses varies over the

surface of a cross section; it is maximum at the neutral axis and zero at the top and

bottom, where its distribution forms a parabolic shape.

The transverse shearing stress in a rectangular beam thus varies as a second-degree

parabola. The maximum value( Fig. 3-15a) occurs at the neutral axis, and is equal to:

3V
  (3-12)
max 2A

58
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

Figure 3-15 Maximum shearing stresses occur at the neutral axis,

for rectangular and circular sections.

While, for a solid circular cross Section ( Fig. 3-15b), the following value for the
maximum transverse shear, is given by:

 
4V
5 (3-13)
96
max 3A
For a circular tube with very thin walls, the maximum transverse shear stress at the
neutral axis is given by:
2V
20

  (3-14)
max A

3-3.6 Bearing/ Crushing/ Contact Stresses

20

Compressive stresses experienced when one object presses against another are known
as bearing stresses or contact stresses. Bearing stress is a localized compressive stress
at the area of contact between two members (see Fig 3-14).
22

Figure 3-14. Localized bearing deformation of smashing, crushing (a), bearing

stresses distribution (b), and Photoelastic model for contact stresses (c)

59
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

Bearing forces crush or tend to crush a member and they may be exerted through a

body, fluid pressure or another member. Generally speaking, allowable stresses for

ductile materials are higher in bearing than in compression .

For brittle materials the allowable stresses in compression and in bearing are

practically the same. The bearing can be calculated from the relationship given

below:

Bearing Load P
 c or  B   (3-10)

5Pr ojected Area Ap

96
There are many cases in engineering practice where the average bearing stress plays a

vital role in the design.

20
20
22

Figure 3-15. Examples for bearing stresses, and their acting areas

60
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

To ensure reasonable life time and to avoid excessive wear, the bearing stress

intensity should not exceed an optimum value which depends upon a number of

factors. The common examples of bearing stress applications (Fig 3-15) are journal

bearings, cotter and socket, crosshead and guide, eccentric sheave and straps,

guideways of machine tools etc.

3-6. Stress Concentration

The THREE Elemental Formulas (Eqs 3-2, 3-7, and 3-9) used in design calculations

5
are based on the assumption that cross-section area is constant. Unfortunately, in
96
engineering practice, it is not very common to find three dimensional machine

element of constant cross section. Also, the presence of shoulders, grooves, holes,
20

keyways, fillets, threads and so on (see Examples of Fig 3-16), results of a

20

modification in stress distribution, as shown in Fig 3-17, and localized High Stresses

will cause Stress Concentrations; which cause failure as shown by the examples of
22

Fig 3-18.

Figure 3-16. Elements with Abrupt Change in cross - section geometry

(i.e. Discontinuity or Non-uniformity), such as Hole, Notch, and Fillet

61
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

This localized stresses are increased by a Factor (Kt) called “The Stress

Concentration Factor, and is greater than 1.0. Such a factor is a dimensionless value

for the ratio of the maximum localized stress ( 𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) and its mean nominal value (

𝝈𝒏 ) – see Fig 3-17b, and is given by:

𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑲𝒕 = 𝝈𝒏
(For Normal Stresses),
and
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝑲𝒕 = (For Shear Stresses)
𝝉𝒏

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20

(a) Plate with central hole, force streamlines (b) Stress Distribution across the central hole

are crowded near hole causing Stress

22

Concentration

Figure 3-17. Hole in a Plate causing Stress Concentration

at their discontinuity points

Applying this Stress Concentration Factor in determining the elementary basic Stress

formulas (Eqs 3-2, 3-7, and 3-9), they become:

F
 max
 K . t
A
M .y (3-11)
 max
 K . t
,
I

T .r
 K .
max t
J

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

The Stress Concentration Factor (Kt) is experimentally determined and plotted as

special charts, as shown in Appendix (B). Designers can modify their designed shape

to avoid or minimize the bad effects of abrupt change in cross section – as shown in

Fig 3-19.

(b) Failure due to root fillet in a gear

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(a) Failure due to abrupt change
in dimensions
Figure 3-18 Failure due to Stress Concentration in machine elements
20
20
22

(a) Change shape of a stepped shaft

(b) Change Shape of multi-notch or thread parts

Figure 3-19. How a design can be modified in shape to minimize stress

concentrations

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-7. Combined Stresses

The main problem in design calculations ( Step # 5 in Design Procedure) is to locate

and define the stress state at the weakest or the most critical point of the loaded

member. Such a critical weak point is found at the most critical section defined by

force analyses. Failure of the member starts at such critical point in that critical

section. The purpose of this section is to determine the stress state at a nominated

point to be critical, and to determine the orientation through such a point where the

stresses are maximum.

5
All fundamental formulas used in this text for determining the stresses at a section of
96
a member have already been established, and corrected for stress concentrations. In

the preceding sections these, formulas were classified into two groups. One group
20

permits the determination of the normal stresses ( σ ) on the elements, the other, the

shearing stresses ( τ ). The role of a designer is to combine theses stresses to get their
20

maximum values and locations. This is achieved by using TWO general methods.
22

If the acting stresses are of the same type (Normal Stresses Only Or Shear Stresses

Only), the Principle of Superposition Method is used. But if Stresses are of

different types (Normal Stresses and Shear Stresses), Stress Transformation

Method is used to combine these different types of stresses, as shown in the next

subsections.

3-7. 1. Principle of Superposition

Stresses and deformations are produced in a machine element by the forces that are

exerted upon it. It is natural to assume that the resultant effect at any chosen point is

the sum of the effects of the various loads. In general, experiments have shown that

this is truly so.

64
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

The idea that the resultant effect is the sum of the separate effects is known as the

principle of superposition. In general, it is valid for cases of loading only where the

magnitude of the stress and deflection is directly proportional to the load.

Figure 3-16 illustrates a beam under combined loading of axial compressive load (F)

and a concentrated transverse load (P). By applying the principle of superposition,

the result due to the individual effects; of bending (Fig. 3-16b ), and compression

(Fig. 3-16c) is shown in Fig. (3-16d). Studying the Resultant Stress Distribution (Fig

3-16d) indicates that the top fiber is heavily stressed with compressive type stresses.

5
This point on the top fiber is considered to be the most critical point on such a critical
96
section, where a design will consider in design calculations.
20
20
22

Figure 3-20. Applying the principle of superposition at (d) for a loaded beam(a),

under bending (b), and axial compression force at (c)

65
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

3-7.3 Stresses Transformation

This is the Second method to combine stresses resulted from different types of loads.

Many practical engineering cases have different normal and shear stresses on two or

more perpendicular planes (see Fig 3-21). Sometimes, one of the stresses may be

small enough to be disregarded, reducing the analysis to one dimension. In most

cases, however, the shear and normal stresses must be combined to determine the

maximum stress acting on the material.

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20
20
22

Figure 3-21. Examples of combined stresses, for (a)Screw shank under

Torsion and axial tension, and (b) Hollow cylinder under internal pressure (P),

axial load (F) and torsion (T)

Figure 3-22 shows The Mohr’s Circle as a graphical presentation for the Stress States

of a point in a loaded member. In constructing Mohr’s circle, Normal stresses are

plotted on the Horizontal axis ( Tension to the Right, and Compression to the Left),

and Shear Stress are plotted on the Vertical axis ( cw positive upward, and ccw

Negative Downward).

66
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

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20

Figure 3-22. Combining Normal and Shear Stresses

20

using Mohr’s Circle

22

Also, actual orientation angle 𝜃 is Doubled on the Mohr’s circle. With the aid of

Mohr’s circle, a plane can be found where the shear stress is zero. The normal stresses

associated with this plane are known as the principal stresses, which are the

maximum (𝝈𝟏 ) and minimum (𝝈𝟐 ) acting at that point in any direction.

These Principle Normal Stresses are:

x  y x  y
 1, 2   ) 2   xy
2
(
2 2 (3-12)

67
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

and the Maximum Shear Stresses is given by:

x  y
 max   ) 2   xy
2
(
2 (3-13)

Elementary Stress components (𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) are modified by stress

concentration factors if applicable.

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20
20
22

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

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20
20
22

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

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20
20
22

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

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20
20
22

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

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20
22

NAME Grade

Sec. No. DATE

72
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

PROBLEMS 1
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

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20
20
22

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FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Part: 1

PROBLEMS 2
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

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20
20
22

74
 Chapter 4

WORKING STRESSES
and
FAILURE THEORIES

5
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4-1 Introduction
20

Once the product concept for a design is adopted to serve the required purpose ( Step
no. 2 in Design Procedure), the next step for a designer is to assign a material for
20

each machine elements (Step no. 4 in Design Procedure). All materials can be
described in terms of their strength, durability, appearance and workability. All these
material properties can be measured and tested but are also available in tables which
22

can be referred to or to select from, the most appropriate one to a specific machine
element.
One of the main responsibilities of a design engineer is to make a structure or a
machine to sustain its assigned loads safely and without failure. The strength of
structures depends not only on their shape but also on the materials and machine
elements from which they are made and the connections between them.

Designers must have enough knowledge and intuition to predict the response of a
structure under loading. Also, its susceptibility to various failure modes takes into
account the properties of the materials such as its yield strength, ultimate strength,
Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio; in addition to their geometric properties; such
as its length, width, thickness, boundary constraints and abrupt changes in geometry
(i.e. stress raiser or Concentration).

75
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

Machine elements should be shaped so that stress concentrations at points of high

loading are avoided as much as possible. Suitable adjustments must also be made
when the material carries loads in two directions. A distinction must be made between
ductile and brittle materials. Lack of knowledge of appreciation of the behavior of
engineering materials under actual service conditions has been the cause of many
expensive catastrophic failures. Catastrophic failure is a complete, sudden, often
unexpected breakdown in a machine. In design calculations designer has to avoid this
to happen.

4-2 Engineering materials

5
A designer whether his product is children toys or an airplane requires a detailed
96
knowledge of the various materials available and their characteristics. The
selection of a particular material by the designer is affected by the numerous
20

considerations e.g. strength, appearance, weight, cost, electrical, magnetic, optical,

thermal and other physical properties.
Broadly speaking the available materials may be divided into the following main
20

categories:

1. The inert materials (stone, brick and concrete).

22

2. The metals (ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals and alloys).

3. Man-made (i.e. synthetic ) or plastic materials
4. Others including ceramics, rubbers, glass, wood etc.

For the purpose of machine elements, the most commonly used materials include the
metals and plastics. We would, therefore, limit our present discussion to the proper
and efficient use of these materials. In order to predict how a material will function in
service, certain characteristics or properties of the material must be known. The
properties of material can be grouped into two major headings i.e. the physical
properties and the mechanical properties.

The mechanical properties are those which measure or indicate the behavior of the
material when subjected to loads. The physical properties include density, electrical
conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, color, shape,

76
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

optical and magnetic properties. Although a complete knowledge of both physical

and mechanical properties is essential to the engineer, yet the mechanical properties
are of far greater importance to the machine designers.

The ferrous metals are abundantly available, combine strength with cheapness and
can be fabricated or machined with great ease. In this class the steels have wide
application as the mechanical properties of steels can be greatly varied by suitable
alloying and heat treatment.

The non-ferrous metals have some special characteristics such as lightness chemical
resistance, appearance, electrical and magnetic properties, heat resistance, high
strength/weight ratio, low expansion, creep resistance etc. However, the overall cost

5
of these metals and alloys is generally higher than that for ferrous metals and alloys.
96
The man-made fibers and plastics are finding increasing use in the engineering
applications. The excellent features of plastics are lightness, color, resistance to
chemical attack, transparency and ease of forming. Plastics are not generally
20

comparable to metals so far as strength, ductility and heat resistance is concerned.

20

4-3 Stress-Strain Diagrams

Much useful information concerning the behavior of materials and their suitability for
engineering purposes can be obtained by making Quasi Static Tensile Tests and
22

plotting a graph for the relationship between stress ( ) and strain ( ) at steady static
tensile loads. The characteristic shape of the stress-strain diagram for low-carbon
steel is shown in Fig 4-1. It should be noted that the material followed Hooke's law
until the loading became a little more than one-half of the ultimate strength u. This
material has a well-defined yield point or stress y. at which a marked increase in
elongation occurs without increase in load. The proportional limit marks the
maximum value of the stress for which Hooke's law holds. The modulus of elasticity
E of the material can be found from the slope, /, of the straight-line portion of the
curve.

After the ultimate stress is reached, soft steel specimens undergo a marked reduction
in diameter, called necking, at some point in the stressed material. It is customary,
however, to construct the diagram on the basis of stresses computed by using the

77
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

5
96
Figure 4-1 Typical Stress Strain Diagram for Ductile Materials
20

original cross-sectional area(Ao). The ratio of the loss of cross-sectional area at

failure to the original area of the specimen is called the reduction of area(ROA). This
20

quantity, together with the percent elongation (% EL) at failure, gives useful
information concerning the ductility of the material. The speed at which the load is
applied affects the shape of the diagram. The yield point and ultimate stresses become
22

higher as the speed of loading increases.

Mechanical properties for a number of widely used engineering materials are given in
Table 4-I, and in more general in Appendix B.

Many steels, especially those that have been heat treated, do not have a well-defined
elastic limit, but yield gradually after passing the proportional limit. For such
materials, the stress corresponding to some given permanent set (usually 0.001 or
0.002 mm./mm.) is called the 0.2% proof strength, and is taken as the limit of the
engineering usefulness of the material.

Figure 4-2 shows the different comparative behavior of different engineering

materials. This can give better guidelines for designers about the general
characteristics of different engineering materials.

78
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

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20
20
22

Figure 4.2 Comparative Stress Strain Diagrams for Different materials

with main characteristics (Yield Strength – UTS – Ductility)

79
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

Table 4-1 Average values for mechanical properties and physical properties
of some Engineering Materials ( See Appendix B for Standards)

4-4 Working Stresses 5

96
Applied working loads on any machine create internal reactions or working stresses
in their elements. These internal working stresses MUST have upper Limits,
20

otherwise failure will take place, and later may lead to complete breakdown of the
machine. Determination of working stresses in machine elements would be
20

meaningless unless they are compared with the Material Strength ( S ). If the
induced working stress is less than or equal ( ≤ ) to the limiting material strength, then
the designed component may be considered to be safe and an indication about the size
22

of the machine element is obtained. This can be expressed as:

If Working Stress ≤ Material Strength >> Safe Design (4-1)

Thus, for safe design, the Working stress must not exceed the materials Yield
Strength ( σy ) for Ductile material, or the Ultimate Strength (σu ) for Brittle material.

* Now, the Question is How Smaller is the Working Stress in comparison

with the Material Strength ?

** The answer is By a Factor greater than ONE !

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 𝑕
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (4-2)
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 > 1.0

This factor is a margin of safety, and is called Factor of Safety (FS , N or NS).

80
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡 𝑕
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = (4-3)
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 (𝐹𝑆)

Commonly, the RHS of the expression (4-3) is called the Allowable Strength ( Sall )
Or Design Stress:

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑭𝑺
= 𝑨𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒍 ) (4-4)

Thus, for a SAFE machine element design, keep in mind that:

𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ( 𝝈𝒘 ) ≤ 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ( 𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒍 ) (4-5)

5
Where, the allowable strength (Sall) can stand for one of the following material’s
96
strength values:
𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒖
𝝈𝒚 𝒂𝒍𝒍 = , 𝝈𝒖 𝒂𝒍𝒍 = ,
𝑭𝑺 𝑭𝑺
20

𝝉𝒚 𝝉𝒖
𝝉𝒚 𝒂𝒍𝒍 = , 𝝉𝒖 𝒂𝒍𝒍 = (4-6)
𝑭𝑺 𝑭𝑺
20

Note that:
For non-available listed data in Appendix B, and for ductile materials, one can use:
22

𝝈𝒚 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔 𝝈𝒖 and 𝝉𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝝈𝒚 (4-7)

The factor of safety (FS) must be greater than Unity, to ensure safety working or
design conditions. The FS depends on many factors, mainly: Material ( Ductile vs
Brittle), Type of load (Steady or cyclic), the Nature of Load ( Gradually applied vs
suddenly applied), possible misuse and environment conditions.

It is the full responsibility of a designer to choose the appropriate value for the Factor
of Safety and to use his/her judgment for such a choice. However, since judgment is
built-up by experience over many years, Table 4-2 is included here as a guide to
younger engineers for recommended factor of safety for some general cases. Other
Code Design or Standards specify these values for Factor of Safety. Smaller FS can
lead to a Failure, while Larger values lead to increase of costs for Materials and
geometrical dimensions.

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

Table 4.2 Typical Values for Factor of Safety (Design Based on Ultimate σu )

(For Yield Strength σy Based Design Multiply value by 0.6)

Type/Nature of Load
Repeated in ONE Repeated in Reverse
direction direction
Material
Steady Gradually Suddenly Gradually Suddenly
Applied Applied Applied Applied
Ductile Metal, Wrought
3 5 10 6 12
Iron, Mild Steel
Hard Steel, High Carbon
4 6 12 8 14
Steel

Brittle Metal, Cast Iron

5 4 7 12 10 16
96
Timber 7 8 15 15 20
Copper, Other Soft
20

5 6 10 8 15
Metals and Alloys
20
22

4-5 Types of Failure

In design, failure means that the machine element cease to perform properly, where
little plastic permanent deformation takes place. The type of failure depends upon the
type of materials and the working environment.

In general, there are Two types of mechanical failures occur in materials Yielding and
Fracture. Yielding or permanent deformation is a pronounced sliding along certain
angular planes in the material. It takes place without rupture (See Fig 4-3a). The
engineering usefulness for most machine parts is ended after a sufficient amount of
yielding has taken place. Therefore, yielding can properly be termed failure. Fracture
is a Separation failure that occurs on a cross section normal to the tension stress (See
Fig 4-3b).

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

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20
20
22

Figure 4-3 Types of Failure for (a) Ductile and (b) Brittle materials, and their atomic
fracture mechanisms

A ductile material can be defined as one whose resistance to sliding is smaller than its
resistance to separation. Failure takes place by yielding (See Fig 4-3a). Many ductile
materials have the same yield point value for compression as for tension. On the
other hand, a brittle material is one whose resistance to separation is less than its
resistance to sliding. Failure takes place by fracture or rupture (See Fig 4-3b). A limit
of about 5% elongation is usually taken as the dividing line between ductile materials
and brittle materials.

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

Figure 4-4 Material Behavior during Tension and Compression Tests

5
96
Most brittle materials have a considerably higher value for the ultimate strength in
compression than for tension, as shown in Fig 4-4. Under certain conditions, a
20

material ordinarily said to be ductile will undergo a fracture or separation failure

similar to that of a brittle material (see Fig 4-5). Some of these conditions are (a)
cyclic loading at normal temperatures (fatigue); (b) longtime static loading at elevated
20
22

Figure 4-5 Transformation of failure mode from Ductile Failure into Brittle failure
Fracture due to lower temperature for Ductile materials,

temperatures (creep); (c) impact or very rapidly applied loading, especially at low
temperatures; (d) work hardening by a sufficient amount of yielding; and (e) severe
quenching in heat treatment if not followed by tempering.

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

4-6 Failure Theories and Design Equation

In order to relate the FIVE unknowns parameters of a design problem (Shape – Size –
Load – Material and Factor of Safety), one needs a DESIGN EQUATION. In this
design equation, some parameters are KNOWN and others are UNKNOWN. This
design problem can be solved with the aid of one of the FAILURE THEORIES.

For SAFE design, working stresses are compared with the Limiting stress or
allowable strength as previously stated by Eq 4-5 for the given working or service
conditions. But, HOW a designer can define such working stresses? Simply, from
the Stress analysis, and the adjustment for stress concentrations, the combined stresses
are defined either with superposition or Stress transformation (Review Chapter 3).

5
96
The principal Stresses are determined for the most critical point of the most critical
section of the loaded machine element (i.e. σ1, σ2, and τmax ). Thus, the working
20

stresses can be one of these principal stresses or their combinations:

𝜎𝑤 = 𝑓 ( 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) (4-6)
Failure theories State and Define such a FUNCTION ( f ), based on analyses and
20

experimental justifications. The following subsections present these different Failure

Theories, FIRST for Stead Loads and then SECONDLY for Cyclic Loads.
22

4-6-1 Failure Theories for Steady Stress

Steady loads create steady stresses, where the load is slowly applied and is maintained
at a steady level during its service. Under steady or static loading, a machine part
made of a ductile material fails by yielding.

THREE important failure theories will be presented, namely:

(1) Maximum shear stress theory,
(2) Maximum normal stress theory, and
(3) Maximum distortion energy theory.

Out of these three theories of failure, the Maximum Normal Stress Theory is only
applicable for brittle materials, and the remaining three theories are applicable for
ductile materials.

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

Following are the important common features for all the theories:
 In predicting failure, the limiting strength (σy or σu) values obtained from the
uniaxial testing are used.
 The failure theories have been formulated in terms of three principal normal
stresses (σ1, σ2, σ3) at a point.

 For any given complex state of stress (σx, σy, σz, τxy, τxz , τyz ) one can

always find its equivalent principal normal stresses (σ1, σ2, σ3). Thus the
failure theories in terms of principal normal stresses can predict the failure due
to any given state of stress.
 The three principal normal stress components σ1, σ2, and σ3, each of which

5
can be comprised of positive (tensile), negative (compressive) or zero value.
96
 When the external loading is uniaxial, that is: σ1 ≠ 0 and σ2, σ3=0, then all
failure theories predict the same as that has been determined from regular
tension/compression test.
20

(a) Maximum Normal Stress Failure Theory

20

(Rankine Failure Theory)

This theory postulates that failure will occur in a machine element if the
22

maximum normal stress in the element exceeds the normal strength of

the material as determined from uniaxial testing.
𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 = 𝐹𝑆
for Ductile Material (4-7)

and
𝜎𝑢
𝜎1 = for Brittle Material (4-8)
𝐹𝑆

where for brittle materials, Tensile maximum normal stress is compared with
the ultimate tensile strength, and Compressive maximum normal stress is
compared with the ultimate compressive strength.

For example if σ1 = 80 MPa, σ2= -100 MPa, and σ3= -150 MPa, then the
maximum tensile stress = 80 MPa, and the maximum compressive stress = -150
MPa (smallest negative value!).

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

(b) Maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory

( Tresca Max Shear theory)

This theory postulates that failure will occur in a machine element if the
magnitude of the maximum shear stress (τmax) in the part exceeds the

shear strength (τy) of the material determined from uniaxial testing.

𝜏𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (4-9)
𝐹𝑆

(c) Maximum Distortion Energy Failure Theory

5
(Von Mises-Hencky Theory)
96
The total elastic energy due to strain can be divided into two parts. One
part causes change in volume, and the other part causes change in shape.
Distortion energy is the amount of energy that is needed to change the
20

shape. This theory postulates that failure will occur when the distortion
energy per unit volume (S) due to the applied stresses in a part equals
20

the distortion energy per unit volume at the yield point in uniaxial
testing.
22

For two-dimensional stress state, the equation in terms of principal stresses is:

S  12   22  1 .  2 (4-10)

or in terms of the element’s stress state, as:

S   x2   y2   x .  y  3 .  xy2
(4-11)

The effective stress ( S ) can be considered a simple normal stress, and can
be used as the working stress, where a Safe Design implies that:

𝝈𝒚
𝑺 = (4-12)
𝑭𝑺

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

4-6-1-1 General Problem Solving Strategy for Failure Theory

 From external loading, determine the point where the mechanical stress

can be most critical. Working Stress (σx, σy, τxy ) could be

combination of axial, bending, transverse shear, or torsional shear stress.

 Determine all normal and shear stresses at that point in three orthogonal

directions x, y, z

 Determine three principal stresses, σ1, σ2, σ3. If there is no shear stress

present, then the normal stresses are the principal normal stress. If shear

5
stress is present, you can either use Mohr’s circle or formula to calculate
96
the principal normal stresses. The angles of principal normal or max

shear stresses are not relevant.

20

 Choose the failure theory applicable.

20

 Find the σy, σut, σuc of the material.

 Apply the chosen theory to determine either the proper size or if factor
22

of safety is adequate

The above mentioned equations ( Eqs 4-7 to 4-12) are DESIGN EQUATIONS,
where the LHS includes loads, shape, and size, while the RHS includes the
material and the factor of safety. Designer can assign some design parameters
and try to solve for the unknown ones.

Take the following situations:

1. Given: Shape – Size – Load – FS  Select Appropriate Material alloy

2. Given: Shape – Material – Load – FS  Determine Appropriate Size

3. Given: Shape – Size – Load – Material  Check FS if OK or Not

4. Given: Shape – Size – Material - FS  Determine maximum Load

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WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

4-6-2 Failure Theories for Cyclic Stresses

Many machine elements, such as shafts, gears, belts, etc. are subjected to a repeated
or cyclic loads (see Fig 3-3). Often machine elements subjected to such repeated or
cyclic stressing are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were
below the ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even
below its yield strength.

The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had occurred only after the
stresses have been repeated a very large number of times (N). Hence the failure is
called fatigue failure ( Fig 4-5 ). Fatigue failure starts at some micro cracks or abrupt
change in geometry, and progressed as shown in Fig 4-6 until a complete fracture is

5
taking place to end the element’s life, as shown in Fig 4-7.
96
20
20

(b) Typical Fatigue fracture surfaces

22

(a) Crack growth due to cyclic load

Figure 4-6 Progressive Fatigue failure due to Cyclic load

(a) Fatigue failure of a car crank shaft (b) Fatigue Failure for a cooling pump rotor

Figure 4-7 Examples for Fatigue failures

89
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

(a) Fatigue Test

(b) Fatigue Cycle

Figure 4-8 Typical Cyclic Load Parameters

5
Cyclic or fatigue loads as shown in Fig 4-9b is characterized by two stress
96
components; namely a Steady mean stress (m ) and a variable alternating or

amplitude stress (a ). These two characterized stress values can be determined as:
20

 max   min
m  (4-13)
2
20

and

 
 
22

max min
a
(4-14)
2
These two characterized stress values are considered as the working stresses
determined from the given loads. The next step is to compare these working stresses
with the Limiting Strength as discussed above and written as in Eq 4-5. Fatigue test
for rotating beam – Fig 4-9a, is used to test materials under cyclic loads. Where a load
of amplitude stress ( Sa) is applied and the number of cycles to failure (N) is recorded.
Figure 4-10 shows the results of a Fatigue Test.

From the S - N curve, the endurance-limit stress (Se or e ) is frequently defined

as the maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress, which a plain
specimen can sustain for 10 million (107 ) or more load cycles without failure as
shown in Fig. ( 4-10b). If a specimen of ferrous material lasts for this number of
cycles, in general it can be assumed that it will last indefinitely in real practice.

90
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

5
Figure 4-9 The Fatigue Test results ( S-N Curve)
96
The Fatigue Limit or the Endurance limit is the fatigue strength for a material
20

subjected to cyclic or complete reverse load. These values of Endurance limits ( Se

or e ) are listed in Mechanical Materials Properties Tables. It has been found that
20

there is a direct relationship between the tensile strength (u ) and endurance strength

(e ) for most of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys.

22

The following relations are experimental found true, where:

1- For Steel:
 e  0.5  u (4-15)
2- For Cast Iron:
 e  0.4  u (4-16)
3- For non - ferrous metals and alloys:
 e  0.3  u (4-17)

Now, the Question is: How a designer can compare working stresses (i.e mean Stress

m , and the alternating stress a ) with the Endurance Limit (e ) for a safe design ?
Very simple, the answer is: By applying failure theory for Cyclic Loads.

91
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

Three Failure Theories are found a good acceptance from engineers world wide.
These Failure Theories are:
1. Goodman Failure Theory,

 
a
 m
1 (4-18)
 e
 u

2. Gerber Parabolic Failure Theory,

FS .   FS .  m 
2

a
    1 (4-19)
   
5 e u
96
3. Soderberg Failure Theory,

  1
 
20

a m
(4-20)
 e
 y
FS
20

These failure theories are graphically presented as shown in Fig 4-10. The zone area

included between the theory line and the two axes ( a -axis and m –axis) is a Safe
22

Design Zone, and the area above the theory line is Unsafe Design zone to be avoided.

Figure 4-10 Failure Theories for Cyclic Loads

92
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

5
96
20

Figure 4-11 The Modified Goodman Line for the Goodman Failure Theory.
20

Goodman failure theory has been modified to be a design equation by dividing both of

the ultimate strength (u ) and the Fatigue Strength or endurance limit (e ) by the
22

Factor of safety (FS). Also, stress concentration (Kt) must be considered, and applied

on the variable stress (a ).

Thus, the Goodman Failure Theory is modified as shown in Fig 4-11, and is
represented by the following Design Equation of the form:

K .  1
t a
 m
 (4-21)
 e
 u
FS

The above Modified Goodman equation is held true for repeated cyclic shearing

stresses ( τm , and τa ) , i.e.

93
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

K .  1
t a
 
m
(4-22)
 e
 u
FS
Note, the shear material properties can be determined from tensile properties using the
following estimates:

 τy (yield strength in shear) = 0.5 y (Yeild strength , tension)

 τu (ultimate strength in shear) = m u (Ultimate strength , tension)

o m = 0.65 for Aluminum,
o m = 0.82 for Steel

5
o m = 0.90 for Iron/Copper
o m = 1.30 for Gray Cast Iron
96
Appendix B, contains Tables for the different mechanical properties of some common
20

engineering materials.
20
22

94
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

WORKED EXAMPLE

5
96
20
20
22

95
WORKING STRESSES AND FAILURE THEORIES Part: 1

PROBLEMS
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

5
96
20
20
22

96
 Chapter 1

DESIGN OF
MECHANICAL JOINTS
1-1 Introduction
Any machine is formed from various elements, which are joined or connected together to
form the designed profile and perform the required function – see examples of Fig 1-1. Such

5
joints may be riveted, bolted or welded. The joint should be designed to transmit the loads
96
that occur during of the machine, with adequate safety margins.
20
20
22

(a) Roller coaster

(b) Bridge Frame

Figure 1-1 Examples of Mechanical joints

In this chapter, the methods of analysis and design of joints or connections for different
members will be treated. Riveted connections played a dominant role in past engineering
construction. However, the increasing use of welding and high-strength bolting due to the
economic advantages they offer has caused a rapid decline in the use of rivets and ordinary
bolts as fasteners in the fabrication of structural products. The manner in which riveted and
bolted joints can fail will be discussed, followed by methods for selecting the proper size and
number of rivets or bolts (ordinary or high strength) for transmitting a given force through a
joint. The remainder of the chapter will be concerned with welded joints.

97
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
1-2 Joint Classifications
Mechanical joints can be classified according to the type and according to the carrying loads.
Joints are broadly classified into two classes; Non-permanent joints and Permanent joints.
Non-permanent joints can be assembled and dissembled without damaging the components.
Examples of such joints are threaded fasteners (like screw-joints), keys and couplings etc.
Permanent joints cannot be dissembled without damaging the components. These joints can
be of two kinds depending upon the nature of force that holds the two parts. The force can be
of mechanical origin, for example, riveted joints, joints formed by press or interference fit etc,
where two components are joined by applying mechanical force. The components can also be
joined by molecular force, for example, welded joints, brazed joints, joints with adhesives etc.

5
96
20
20

Figure 1-2 Joint Carrying load, (left) Symmetrical, and (right) Eccentric
22

As for the joint carrying load, it can be Symmetrical loaded joints, and Non-symmetrical of
Eccentric loaded joints. If the load line of action passing through its center of gravity (cg) it
is named Symmetrical, otherwise it is called Eccentrically loaded (Fig 1-2). The design for
joints loaded with Symmetrical load is first presented, and then joints with eccentric loads
will be studies later.

1-3 Design of Riveted and Bolted Joints

Most members are made up of plate-like parts such as actual plates, webs and flanges of
beams, legs of angles, etc. The design of a riveted or bolted connection is mainly concerned
with the transfer of forces through these plates by means of single and double shear. It is also
possible for more than two shear planes to occur in complex joints involving interaction
between several plate elements.

98
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

(A) Sequence in making riveted joint

5
96
20
20

(B) Typical configuration of riveted joints

22

(C) Types of rivets

Figure 1-3 Riveted joints elements and arrangements

99
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
For a riveted assembly of ordinary parts, matching holes are punched in the plates for the
insertion of hot rivets. For more accurate work, as well as for the larger size of rivets (25 mm
to 32 mm diameter), the holes are drilled or first punched and then reamed (enlarged) to size.

One end of a rivet has a head, while the other head is formed from the shank by a pneumatic

hammer as a back-up tool is held against the prefabricated head, Fig.(1-3A) It is desirable to

have the clearance of the rivet in a prepared hole as small as possible. For rivets of 13 mm

diameter and larger, an increase of 0.8 to 1.6 mm in the diameter of the hole over the nominal

rivet diameter is customarily made on proper driving, a hot rivet expands in the prepared hole,

and, while hot, it presses the surrounding material outward. Upon cooling, the rivet diameter

5
diminishes somewhat, but the elastic return of the surrounding material helps to reduce this
96
tendency for undesirable looseness. Moreover, a rivet also shrinks lengthwise upon cooling.
20

This effect causes a permanent tensile stress in the shank of a rivet and a compression stress in

the assembled plates. The compressive force so set up between the plates may be rather large,
20

and this force is capable of developing a large frictional resistance normal to the axis of the

rivet. This action may be sufficient to carry the applied working load. However, in
22

determining the required number of rivets, it is customary to disregard the frictional

resistance of the joint.

The configuration of riveted joint, type and spacing of the rivets is normally specified by the

designer. However as a guide to good practice Fig. (1-3B) is included to illustrate typical

riveted joints, while Fig.( 1-3C) shows the different types of rivets.

Although rivets used to be the only choice, but since the early 1950s, bolts have steadily

gained in popularity. Similarly, two basic types of joint are used, lap and butt, each of which

is illustrated in Fig. (1-2A). These are further defined as being either (1) friction-type joints,

where the fasteners create a significant clamping force on the joint and the resulting friction

between joint members prevents joint slip- as illustrated in Fig. (1-2D), or (2) bearing-type

joints, where the fasteners, in effect, act as points to prevent slip. The construction of a bolt

100
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

(A) Bolted joints (Left) Lap joint, and (Right) Butt joint

5
96
20

(B) Bolt and its nut (C) Elements of a metric thread

20
22

(D) The effect of tightening force on the joint

(E) Using of screws in bolted joints

Figure 1-3 Bolted joints

101
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
and its nut is shown in Fig. (1-2B). The thread of a bolt has some basic elements illustrated in

Fig. (1-2C) In some engineering applications, a machine screw ( i.e. a bolt without nut) is

used, when the other side of the joint is inaccessible – as in Fig. (1-2E).

1-4 Modes of Failure of a Riveted / Bolted Joints

Under Symmetrical Loads
Riveted or ordinary bolted joints may fail in a number of different ways or MODES as shown
in Fig 1-4, which are discussed in the following sections.

5
Joint Mode of Failure
96
(Rivet and Bolted)
20

Shearing Crushing Tearing

Failure Failure Failure
20
22

Figure 1-4 Modes of Failure in Riveted/Bolted Joints

1-4-1 Failure by Shear Mode

In a riveted joint. the rivets themselves may fail in shear. This type of failure is shown in Figs.
(1-5a) and (b). In analyzing this possible manner of failure, one must always note whether a
rivet acts in single or double shear. In the latter case, two cross-sectional areas of the same
rivet resist the applied force. In practical calculations, the shearing stress is assumed to be
uniformly distributed over the cross 5ection of a rivet.

102
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

Figure 1-5 Shearing mode of failure in riveted joints

The shear stress acting on the rivets or bolts is given by the expression:
P
  all
(1-1)
A
s

where As is the total area subjected to shearing action.

1-4-2 Failure in Bearing or Crushing Mode

A riveted joint may fail if a rivet crushes the material of the plate against which it bears, Figs.

5
(1-5a) and (b), or if the rivet itself is deformed by the plate acting on it. The stress distribution
96
is very complicated in this type of failure and is somewhat like that shown in Fig. (1-5c). In
practice, this stress distribution is approximated on the basis of an average bearing stress
20

acting over the projected area of the rivet's shank on to a plate, i.e., on area td in Fig. (1-5d).
It is difficult to justify this procedure theoretically. However the allowable bearing stress is
determined from experiments and is interpreted on the basis of this average stress acting on
20

the projected area of a rivet.

22

(b) Projected area Ab due to crushing

(a) Crushing of Joint Plates

Figure 1-6 Crushing/Bearing mode of failure in riveted joint

The bearing or crushing stress acting on the rivets or bolts or their plates is defined by:

P
 b
  b all
(1-2)
n.d.t

103
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
1-4-3 Failure in Tension (Tearing) Mode
A riveted joint transmitting a tensile force may fail in a plate weakened by the rivet holes. For
example, in a single-riveted lap joint, Fig. (1-3a), the net area in either plate across the
section A-A in Fig. (1-3b) is the least area, and a tear would occur there.
Since riveting is employed only for ductile materials. it is customary to base the capacity of a
joint in tension on the assumption of a uniform stress distribution across the net section of a
plate.

5
96
20

Figure 1-7 Tearing mode of failure in riveted joint

20

The tensile stress acting on the plates is calculated as:

22

P
  (1-3)
( Bn.d ).t
t all

where: B is the width of the joint, d the rivet or bolt nominal diameter, t is the smaller plat
thickness, and n is the number of rivets or bolts used in the joint. Standard rivet sizes are
listed in Table 1-1, and for Bolts, see Appendix C.

Table 1-1 Standard Rivet Sizes

104
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
1-4-4 Joint Efficiency
The capacity of a riveted or ordinary bolted joint will be based only on the probable tear,
shear, and bearing capacities. This assumed action of a riveted joint as illustrated in Fig.1-7.
The frictional resistance between the plates is neglected. The smallest of the three resistances
is the strength of a joint. The ratio of this strength divided by the strength of a solid plate or
member, expressed in percent, is called the efficiency of a joint, i.e.,

Strengthof the JOINT

Joint Efficency  X 100 (1-4)
Strengthof unpunched Plate

5
1-5 Modes of Failure of a Riveted / Bolted Joints
96
Under Eccentric Loads
The foregoing discussion of riveted and bolted joints applies to situations where the line of
20

action of the applied load P passes through the center of gravity (cg or G) or the centroidal
point of the rivet/bolt group, as shown in Fig 1-2a. Now, when the load is applied
20

eccentrically with an offset (e) to a group of rivets forming a joint - as shown in Fig 1-2b and
Fig 1-8a, the effect of the moment torque M must be taken into account, as well as the direct
load P.
22

(a) Loaded Column with eccentric

(b) Force analysis of the joint,
load P at an offset e from G
showing Internal rivet Reactions

Figure 1-8 A bolted/riveted joint column

subjected to an eccentric load P

105
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
A typical example is shown in Fig. 1-8, where the joint of n rivets/.bolts is subjected to a
moment M equal to P.e. Let it be assumed that the moment load F on a rivet or a bolt
proportional directly with the distance r from the center of gravity of the group of rivets or
bolts, and is directed perpendicular to the radius to the center of gravity. Equations for
moment loads F1, F2, and F3 in Fig.(1-7) may then be written as:

Fi  C . ri i = 1, 2, 3, … (1-5)
where C is the constant of proportionality.

The externally applied moment is equal to the summation of the products of these forces and
their arms to the center of gravity C. Hence:

M  P.e
5
96
 F r  F .r  f .r .....
1 1 2 2 3 3

C ( r r  r ....)
1
2
2
2
3
2
20

Thus

P.e
C 
20

n (1-5)
r
i 1
i
2
22

When the value of the unit load C has been determined from Eq. (1-5), the moment force for
each rivet/bolt can be calculated by multiplying by the appropriate r. It is customary to
assume that the direct load p = P/n is the same for all rivets of the joint.

The vectorial sum R of moment force F and direct force p is determined graphically as the
resultant acting load on each rivet/bolt. Also, this resultant force can be calculated
analytically for each rivet or bolt as follows;

R  F 2  p 2  2 F p cos  (1-6)

where Ө is angle included between F and p for specific rivet or bolt. Notice that the location
of the centroid point G, must be first determined, using:

106
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
𝑥 1 + 𝑥 2 +𝑥 3 +𝑥 4 +.. 𝑦 1 + 𝑦2 +𝑦 3 +𝑦4 +..
𝑥= and 𝑦= (1-7)
𝑛 𝑛

The highest resultant load Rmax is defining the most critical rivet/bolt to be considered in the
design. Then Rmax is used to calculate the stresses in TWO MODE OF FAILURE; by
shearing and by bearing stresses, using the DESIGN EQUATIONS (1-1) and (1-2)
respectively. Normally, Shearing mode of failure is ONLY considered, i.e.

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏 = ≤ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 (1-8)
𝐴𝑠

Here, one has to be careful, only a single rivet/bolt is considered in calculating As !

5
96
1-6 Welded Joints
Because of lower initial cost, many structural parts of machinery formerly made by casting
20

are now fabricated by welding. The components can be sheared or flame cut from hot-rolled

steel plate and then welded together. Figure 1-9, shows a number of typical welded
20

assemblies. Sometimes the intricate portion of the body can be casted or stamped. The flat

areas, made of plates, then can be attached by welding.

22

Welded assemblies usually provide greater strength at a reduction in weight-an important

advantage for moving parts of machines and transport equipment. In a welded design it is

usually necessary to do a smaller amount of machining than for an equivalent casting. The

design must provide accessibility to the welds so they can be properly made and inspected.

In the fusion welding process, heat is obtained from an oxyacetylene flame or from an electric

arc passing between an electrode and the work. The edges of the parts are heated to the fusion

temperature and joined together with the addition of molten filler material from a welding rod,

as shown in Fig 1-10.

107
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

Figure 1-9 Built-up Machine components fabricated by welding joints

5
96
20
20

Figure 1-10 Arc welding with coated electrode (fusion welding)

22

(A) Butt Welded joints

(B) Fillet lap Welded joints

Figure 1-11 The Two main types of weld joints.

108
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
1-6-1 Design of Welded Joints
Several different types of welds are shown in Fig 1-11. The weld thickness t for a lap or butt
weld does not include the bulge or reinforcement (a). Plates that are t thick and heavier should
be beveled before welding. Appendix C, illustrates the different types of welding joints
together with their symbolic representation on working drawings.

5
(a) Butt Weld Size (b) Lap Weld Size
96
Figure 1-12 Geometry of weld joint cross section
20

Stresses are calculated for the design throat (t = h / cos Ɵ , where Ɵ =45o for fillet weld and Ɵ
=0 for butt weld ); which is the minimum cross section located at 450 to the legs h, as shown
20

in Fig. (1-12b). The throat area is; ( Aw = t . Lw), or ( O.707 h Lw for fillet weld and t . Lw for
butt weld ), where h is the length of the leg, and Lw is the total weld length.
22

(A) For butt weld joint (t = h ) ( Figs 1-11a and 1-12a), MODE FAILURES, can be
due to tension stress, or shear stress [The throat area is; ( Aw = t . Lw) ], where their average
values are:

P
  all
(1-9)
t .L w

and

P
   all
(1-10)
t.L w

109
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
(B) As for Fillet Lap weld Joint ( Figs 1-11b, and 1-12b); which can be loaded
parallel to its length (side-fillet-lap joint), as shown in Fig 1-11B-b (Left), or transverse to the
load (end-fillet-lap joint), as shown in Fig 1-12B-a (Right).
One single MODE OF FAILURE is only causing joint failure. Shearing mode of failure,
across its throat area [Aw = t . Lw, or O.707 h Lw ], is the most critical one; which is
calculate as:

P
   all
(1-11)
0.707 h . L w

where Lw is the total sum of all weld lengths. The Strength of weld electrodes ( yield σy and
Ultimate σu ) are listed in Table 1-2 according to the ASW – Standard, wher their
interpretations are illustrated in Fig 1-13.

5
96
20
20
22

Figure 1- 13 Electrode Designations according to the AWS standard

110
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2
Table 1-2 Mechanical properties for Carbon Steel Flux Cored Electrodes
(Acc to AWS Standard)

5
96
20
20
22

111
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

WORKED EXAMPLE 1

5
96
20
20
22

112
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

5
96
20
20
22

113
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

5
96
20
20
22

114
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

5
96
20
20
22

115
DESIGN OF MECHANICAL JOINTS Part: 2

PROBLEMS
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

5
96
20
20
22

4- Design an overlapped reviled joint to carry a concentrated load of 25 KN to joint two plates
of 8 mm thickness each. Design for the following two cases:
(a) If the load is symmetrically applied, and
(b) If the load is applied non-symmetrically at 1250 mm offset.
( Hint use: 10 Rivets on 2 Rows of 5-rivet each).

116
 Chapter 2
DESIGN OF
SHAFTS
2-1 Introduction

A shaft is a rotating member, which transmits power from one point to another and is
usually supported in bearings. The shafts are normally made of mild steel and are

5
cylindrical in shape Sometimes, however, these may be square in section or hollow
96
cylindrical.
20
20

(b) Chopper main propeller shaft

(a) Many drive shafts and Axles in a car
22

(c) Crankshaft for IC engines (d) Many Shafts are in a lathe turning

(e) Axles in a bicycle (f) Deep oil well drilling shaft

Figure 2-1 Examples for using Shafts, axles, and Spindles

117
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

A spindle is a short revolving shaft which imparts motion to some part of a machine.
Drill press spindle and lathe spindles are common examples. An axle is a member
resembling shaft but it is short in length and it does not necessarily rotate. The axles
are, in general, subjected to transverse loads causing bending of axles. Some examples
of shafts are shown in Fig 2-1.

Shafts up to 75 mm diameter are normal made from cold rolled stock. For diameter
range of 75 mm to 150 mm, hot rolling is adopted. For diameters higher than 150
mm the shafts are manufacturing by forging process and then machined to the desired
size.

The material used for shafts should have the following properties:
•
• 5
It should have high strength.
It should have good machinability.
96
• It should have low notch sensitivity factor.
• It should have good heat treatment properties.
20

• It should have high wear resistant properties.

2-2 Standard Sizes of Shafts

20

The maximum length of a single shaft will not exceed 7 meters because of the
difficulty of transportation and handling. However, any desired length can be erected
22

by joining the standard lengths with detachable fastenings like coupling etc. The
common sizes of transmission shafts normally manufactured and stocked are given in
Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Standard Sizes of Transmission Shafts

DIAMETER ( mm )
25 55 110 220 360
30 60 125 240 380
35 70 140 260 400
40 80 160 280 420
45 90 180 300 440
50 100 200 320 460
340 480
500

118
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

2-3 Transmission Shaft Loads

During service (see Fig 2-2a), shafts are subjected to a Varity of working loads,
working individually or in combined manner, as follows:
• Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque (T) only – Fig 2-2b,
• Shafts subjected to bending moment (M) only – Fig 2-2c,
• Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments (T and M), and
• Shafts subjected to axial loads (Fa) in addition to combined torsional and
bending loads (T and M).

While, the nature of these loads can be either:

 A Steady load, or
5
96
 A Fully reversing load.

2-4 Shaft Design

20

The design of a shaft requires consideration of many interested factors e.g. strength,
stiffness, fatigue, material of shaft, bearing and gear forces, critical speeds, weight and
20

space limitations, stress concentration etc. Many design criteria can be followed in
shaft design. These Design Criteria are:
22

a) Strength Criteria,
b) Rigidity (i.e. deflection) Criteria, and
c) Vibration (i.e. Critical Speed) Criteria.

Only, Strength Design with Steady Shaft loads are considered in the following design
shaft procedure.

2-5 Theories of Failure for Shaft Design

It has already been discussed in the previous chapter that strength of machine
elements is based upon the mechanical properties of the materials used. Since these
properties are usually determined from simple tension or compression tests, therefore,
predicting failure in members subjected to uni-axial stress is both simple and
straightforward. However, the problem of predicting the failure stresses for members

119
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

(a) A Shaft carrying Belt drive pulleys

5
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20
20
22

(b) Applied Torque moment (T) and its torsional Stress Distributions,
for Solid and Hollow Shafts

(c) Applied Moment (M) and its Bending Stress Distributions

Figure 2-2 Loaded Belt Drive Shaft and their carrying pulleys,
and distribution of stresses.

120
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses is much more complicated. In fact, the

problem is so complicated that a large number of different theories have been
formulated.

The principal theories of failure for a member subjected to bi-axial stress are as
follows:

1. Maximum Normal Stress Theory ( Rankine’s theory).

2. Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).

3. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory ( Hencky and Von Mises theory).

5
4. The ASME code for Shaft Design.
96
20

Since ductile materials usually fail by yielding i.e. when permanent deformations
occur in the material and brittle materials fail by fracture, therefore the limiting
strength for these two classes of materials is normally measured by different
20

mechanical properties. For ductile materials, the limiting strength is the stress at yield
point as determined from simple tension test and it is, assumed to be
22

equal in tension or compression. For brittle materials, the limiting strength is the
ultimate stress in tension or compression.

For commercial shaft design, the allowable tensile stress is taken equal to 60 percent
of elastic limit in tension provided it is more than 36 percent of ultimate strength. The
maximum allowable shear stress is likewise taken as 30 percent of the yield tensile
strength, or as 18 percent of the ultimate tensile strength, whichever is minimum.
In general, allowable or design stresses are:

𝜎𝑦 0.5 𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐹𝑆
or 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐹𝑆
(2-1)

Specifically for shaft design, it is recommended to use the following guidelines in

defining allowable or design stresses.

121
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

a) For Design Allowable Normal Stress, Use the Larger of:

[ 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟎 𝝈𝒚 or 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔 𝝈𝒖 ] (2-2)

b) For Design Allowable Shear Stress, Use the Smaller of:

[ 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝝈𝒚 or 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝝈𝒖 ] (2-3)

If shaft has a stress raiser, e.g. keyway, then all the allowable stresses are reduced by
25 percent of the above allowable values.

2- 5-1 Shaft Design Under ONLY Torsional Load

or Bending Load

5
96
If the shaft is subjected to torsion or twisting moment (T) only, the principal stress
induced is the shear stress ( τxy = τmax ), which is designed according to:
20

T . rmax
 max    (2-4a)
20

J all

or for circular solid shafts;

22

16 𝑇
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (2-4b)
𝜋 . 𝑑3
Where:
T Torque to which circular shaft is subjected.
J Polar moment of inertia of section.
max Maximum shearing stress on the outer surface of the shaft
rmax Outside radius of the rotating shaft of (d) outer diameter.
And, if the shaft is subjected to Bending moment (M) only, the principal stress
induced is Normal stress ( σx = σmax = σ1 ), which is designed according to:

M . ymax
 max    (2-5a)
J all

122
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

or for circular solid shafts

32 𝑀
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 = (2-5b)
𝜋 . 𝑑3
Where:

M Bending moment to which circular shaft is subjected.

J Second moment of inertia of circular shaft of (d) outer diameter
σmax Maximum Bending stress on the outer surface of the shaft
ymax Distance of outer fibers ( ymax = rmax = d/2) of the rotating shaft.

5
2-5-2 Shafts Under Combined Bending and Torsional Loads
96
(Steady Loads)
20

If the shaft is carrying heavy masses; pulleys, flywheels gears, etc, then it is subjected
to combined bending and torsion stresses. There are several methods of computing the
20

shaft diameter under these conditions, according to the adopted Failure Theory.
22

A: Maximum Normal Stress Theory - (Steady Loads)

( Rankine’s theory)

This theory is not usually applicable for ductile materials, but it gives good
results for brittle materials. The Design Equation applied is:
.

M . ymax
 max  e   (2-6a)
I all
Where:
Me The Equivalent Bending moment where shaft is subjected to.
I The second moment of inertia of cross section.
max Maximum normal stress on the outer surface of the shaft

123
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

ymax Distance from the neutral axis to the outer fiber;

which is equivalent to the max. radius of the rotating shaft.
The Equivalent Bending moment Me is calculated as:

1 2
M  ( M  M  T2 ) (2-6b)
e 2

Combining Eqs (2-4b, 2-5b, and 2-6b) into the Design Eq (2-6a), one can write it in
terms of Material (all), Loads (M and T), and Shaft Diameter Size (d) as follows:

32 𝑀𝑒
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≥ (2-6c)

5 𝜋 . 𝑑3
96
B: Maximum Shear Stress Theory – MSST (Steady Loads)
20

(Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).

This theory is not usually applicable for ductile materials, where the Design
20

Equation is having the from:

.
22

T . rmax
 max  e   (2-7a)
J all

where Te is the Equivalent Torque:

2
T  M  T2 (2-7b)
e

Combining Eqs (2-4b, 2-5b, and 2-7b) into the Design Eq (2-7a), one can write it in
terms of Material (all), Loads (M and T), and Shaft Diameter Size (d) as follows:

16 𝑇𝑒
𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≥ (2-7c)
𝜋 . 𝑑3

124
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

C- Maximum Distortion Energy Theory – DET (Steady Loads)

( Hencky and Von Mises theory)

This theory is widely used by designers for shaft design, where the employed Design
Equation is having the form:
.

S  1   2  1 .  2
2 2

e all

or ( check Eq (4-11 part 1))

S      . 3.
2 2

5 2
 (2-8a)
96
e x y x y xy all

Combining Eqs (2-4b, and 2-5b) into the Design Eq (2-8a), one can write it in terms
20

of Material (all), Loads (M and T), and Shaft Diameter Size (d) as follows:
20

16 𝑀𝑒
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≥ (2-8b)
𝜋 . 𝑑3
22

where Me is the Equivalent Bending moment:

2
M  4M 3 T2) (2-8c)
e

2-5-3 The ASME Code for Transmission Shaft Design

(Dynamic Loads)

In actual practice, shafts are subjected to both fluctuating torque and bending loads. In
order to design such shafts "The American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASME
has worked out a special procedure for design of transmission shafts taken into
account Shock and Fatigue factors. The diameter of the shaft is calculated by this
ASME-code assume that both torsional and bending loads are present. This code is

125
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

based on the maximum shear stress theory of failure- MSST ( Eq. (2-7a)). The
bending moment and torsional moment are multiplied by shock and fatigue factors
Km, and Kt respectively, depending upon the working or service conditions.

Thus, the ASME-code Design Equation is of the form:

T . rmax
 max  e   (2-9a)
J all

The equivalent torque in this code is given by:

2
T  ( Km . M )  ( Kt . T )2 (2-9b)
e
where:
5
96
Km combined shock and Fatigue factor for bending (Table 2-2).
Kt combine shock and Fatigue factor for torsion (Table 2-2).
20

Again, combining Eqs (2-4b, 2-5b, and 2-8b) into the Design Eq (2-7a), one can write
20

it in terms of Material (all), Loads (M and T), and Shaft Diameter Size (d) as
follows:
16 𝑇𝑒
22

𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 ≥ (2-9c)
𝜋 . 𝑑3

Table 2-2 Factors of Shock and Fatigue for Shaft ASME-Code design.
TYPE OF LOADING Km Kt
I: Stationary hafts (axles):
a- Load applied gradually 1.0 1.0
b- load applied Suddenly 1.5-2.0 1.5 - 2.0

II: Rotating Shafts ( Spindles):

a- load steady or gradually applied 1.5 1.0
b-load applied suddenly, with minor shock. 1.5 - 2.0 1.0 - 1.5
c-load applied suddenly, with heavy shock. 2.0 - 3.0 1.5 - 3.0

126
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

For commercial shafting, the ASME - code recommend the following typical values
for allowable design working stresses:

  55MPa
all
For shafts without keyway.

And

  41.5MPa
all
For shafts with a keyway.

Calculated values for shaft design are selected according to the standard diameter

5
sizes listed above in Table (2-1).
96
2-6 Design Shaft Procedure
20

For a given design situation, involved transmission shaft, the following procedure can
be suggested.
20

1. Develop a shear (SFD) and bending moment (BMD) diagrams for an

arbitrary set of orthogonal X- and Y- planes of the shaft – see Figure 2-3.
Note that at any position along the shaft the resultant moment M is:
22

M  M xy2  M xz2
(2-10)

2. Draw a diagram of the torque applied to each section of the shaft. Torque
will change where power is added or extracted from the shaft. The sum of
the power added to the shaft must equal the power extracted from the
shaft.
3. By inspection or iterative calculation of stress at positions on the shaft,
find the critical position along the shaft where combined stresses will be
the greatest. Use the moment M and the torque T at this position when
designing the shaft. Adopt one of the Failure Theory to solve for
Unknowns ( Diameter size, Material, Factor of Safety, Max Load carrying
capacity).

127
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

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96
20

Figure 2-3 Loaded Shaft with two gears(a), and its FBD (B), Bending moment
diagrams (c) in two planes, and the Torque diagram (d)
20

The shaft design procedure is shown in Fi 2-4, as a flow chart.

22

Given
• Loaded Shaft
• Free Body Diagram
Draw • (Find Reactions)
•SFD, BMD, and Torque Diagram
Plot •( in different Planes)

Do
• Force Analysis

Do
• Stress Analysis

Apply
• Failure Theory
• Load - Material - Diameter Size -
Get Factor of Safety

Figure 2-4 Design Procedure for Shaft Design

128
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

WORKED EXAMPLE

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20
20
22

129
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

PROBLEMS 1
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

1. For the following arrangements a and b, choose a suitable shaft configuration to

support and locate the two power transmission components and their two bearings.

5
96
(a) (b)
20

2. A 600 mm diameter pulley driven by a horizontal belt transmits power, at D

20

through a solid shaft to a 265 mm diameter pinion located at C. The arrangements

of elements, the belt tensions and the components of the gear reactions on the
22

pinion are as shown in figure below. Determine the necessary shaft diameter, and
make a complete construction and working drawing for it.

3. A machine shaft turning at 600 rpm is supported on bearings 750 mm apart, as

shown in figure below. 15 KW is supplied to the shaft through a 450 mm pulley
located at D, and is taken by the spur gear at C of 20 deg pressure angle. The belt

130
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

tension ratio is 3:1. Determine the necessary for the shaft to safely carry such
loads.

4. For the previous problem ( 4-4), make a construction and working drawings for
such a shaft.

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96
20
20
22

131
DESIGN OF SHAFTS Part: 2

PROBLEMS 2
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

5
96
20
20
22

132
 Chapter 3

DESIGN of
KEYS and KNUCKLE JOINTS

3-1 Keys and Their Types

The most commons method of transferring power from a shaft to a hub, gear,
pulley or crank etc., is by means of a key, as shown in Fig 3-1. Various kinds of

5
keys are shown in Fig 3-2. In practical applications key width (w) are generally
96
¼ of the shaft diameter (d). The length (L) is adjusted to meet the strength
requirement. It is assumed that the force due to torsion (T) is uniformly
distributed over the length of the key and at the surface of the shaft.
20
20
22

(a) Various mechanical elements are mounted on their shafts with keys

(b) Shaft-Gear-Key- keyway elements

Figure 3-1 Some illustrative examples for the usage of keys

133
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2

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20
20
22

Figure 3- 2 Different kinds of Keys, and their installations on shafts.

Figure 3-3 An example of the shaft - key - hub assembly.

134
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
A key is a bar of a tapered or prismatic shape generally made of steel and is
inserted between shaft and its mounting (hub, gear, pulley or crank etc.) to
prevent relative loose motion, as shown in Fig 3-3. A groove called keyway or
keyseat is cut in both the shaft and the other member to accommodate the key.
Splines may be defined as series of keys to prevent relative rotation between the
shaft and the rotating member mounted on it. Splines (Fig 3-4) are permanent
keys made integral with the shaft and fitting in keyways provided in the hub.
Splines permits the axial movement between the two mating parts.

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96
(b) Cross section of splined
20

joint (male and female)

(a) Splined Shaft
20

Figure 3-5 Spline Shaft as integral multi-key connection joint

22

Figure 3-6 Main dimensions of feather, Rectangular and Square Keys

135
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
Provision of key in a shaft usually weakens that portion of the shaft where keys
has been cut. The abrupt change of section results in high stress concentration
at the keyway. Keys have, therefore, been standardize and are generally
proportional to the shaft diameter (see Fig 3-6). One of the major advantages of
key is that it would fail when stress level rises unexpectedly and thereby protect
the more expensive members.

There are various shapes of standard keys available and the choice of proper
type depends upon power requirements stability, fit or tolerance and the cost
involved. Figure 3-6, shows the more usual types; of Feather, Rectangular and
square keys. For very light power, a set screw may be tightened against the
round shaft in place of a key. For rather light loads, the saddle key may be used.
The saddle key has the advantage that it does not weaken the shaft and also

5
enables the hub to be fastened to any position on the shaft. The square and
96
rectangular sunk keys are most commonly used in transmission shafting and
in general industrial machinery.
20

A round key is a round tapered pin and is used for fastening hand wheels and
cranks, where loads involved are not very heavy. Round keys have
comparatively less stress concentration owing to the absence of sharp corners.
20

The Woodruff key( see Fig 3-2D and 3-7(4)) is a section of a disc whose
rounded portion enters a corresponding groove milled in the shaft. It is simple
22

to manufacture, easy to assemble but would transmit comparatively low torque.

Keys are usually tapered on the upper face and a standard taper of 1 in 100 is
most common. The wedging action as the key is driven into place forces the hub
and shaft together on the side opposite the key, and assists in keeping the hub in
its desired axial position.

Figure 3-7 (1:100) Taper keys

136
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
3-2 Standard Sizes of Keys

The size of the key for a given size of a shaft is usually specified and contained in
different standards. Table (3-1), gives the standard sizes of keys to be used
with shafts of varying diameters. Usually the section of the key employed for
transmission shafting is either square key, or flat (rectangular) key. The choice
among the square or the flat key is rather arbitrary.

Normally, key length (L) is less than the hub length or equal to it. For transfer of
higher torsional moments, it is possible to use two keys in the coupling – Fig 3-8.
The keys are usually arranged symmetrically on the shaft (in opposite positions).
A non-symmetrical arrangement is also used for transfer of cyclical moments (at
120° spacing).
5
96
Table 3-1 Standard Dimensions ( mm Units ) of Flat t keys.
20

Diameter (D) bXh Length (L)

over to Min. Max.
6 8 2x2 6 20
20

8 10 3x3 6 36
10 12 4x4 8 45
12 17 5x5 10 50
17 22 6x6 14 71
22

22 30 8x7 18 90
30 38 10 x 8 22 110
38 44 12 x 8 28 120
44 50 14 x 9 36 160
50 58 16x10 45 180
58 65 18:x 11 50 200
65 75 20 x 12 56 220
75 85 22 x 14 63 250
85 95 25 x 14 71 280
95 110 28 x16 80 320
110 .130 32 x 16 90 360
130 150 36 x 20 100 400
150 170 40x 22 110 400
170 200 45x20 125 400
200 230 50x.28 140 400
230 263 56x 32 160 400
260 29 63x 32 180 400
290 330 70x 36 200 400
330 380 80x 40 220 400
380 440 90x 45 250 400
440 500 100x 50 280 400

137
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2

Figure 3-8 Possible arrangements when using TWO keys

When the key is designed so that it is equally strong in shearing and compression
then the square key is generally chosen if the allowable shear stress is
approximately one half its allowable compressive stress.

5
96
3-3 Design of Keys
Two Mode of Failures can take place within a key; the Shearing Mode of Failure
20

and Crushing Mode of Failure. Let us now analyze each one of these modes and
analyze the stresses set-up in the key in actual practice. It is assumed that half of
the thickness of the key is in the shaft and the remaining half in the hub.
20
22

(a) Shaft/Key/Hub interaction (b) Force Analysis

Figure 3-9 Key Failure analysis

138
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
A: Key Shearing Mode of Failure (Fig 3-9a):

𝑭
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ≤ 𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 (3-1)
𝑨𝒔
where:
As : is the total shearing area for n keys of a total length L (n.l) :

𝑨𝒔 = ( 𝒘 . 𝑳 ) [ Notice that normally, w = d/4 ]

τall : is the allowable shear stress for the key materials; which can be used as
the shaft’s material :

𝟎.𝟓 𝝈𝒚
𝝉𝒂𝒍𝒍 = 𝑭𝑺

B: Key Crushing or Bearing Mode of Failure (Fig 3-9b):

𝑭
𝝈𝒄 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = ≤ 𝝈𝒃 𝒂𝒍𝒍 (3-2)
𝑨𝒑

5
96
where:
Ap is the total Porojected crushing/bearing area of a total length L:

𝒉
𝑨𝒑 = 𝒏 ( .𝑳)
20

The design or allowable bearing stress is determined by:

20

1.5 𝜎𝑢
𝜎𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐹𝑆

Usually, AISI 1020 steel grade is used as Key’s material. As for the factor of safety it
22

can be selected as:

FS = 2 ( for ordinary service), and
FS = 4.5 ( for Shock loads )

The resisting tangential force F , can be determined from the transmitted power P for
a shaft rotating by n (rpm) rotational speeds, as follows:

P  T . ( 2 N ) (3-3)

in which, the transmitted torque T, acting on the shaft / hub assembly at d/2 distance
from the axis of rotation is determined as:

T  F. ( d ) (3-4)
2
Notice the following equivalent units:

1 KW = 1.36 H P.

1 Watt = 1 J/sec = 1 N . m / sec

139
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
3-4 Knuckle Joint Design
Knuckle joints are used in those applications where a small amount of flexibility
or angular movement is necessary. The Knuckle joint is also called „ pin” or "fork
and eye” joint and is used to connect round shafts, as shown in Fig 3-10.

The knuckle joint is used to connect two rods that are under the action of
tensile loads. This joint permits considerable changes in the axial directions of
the bars and may be readily connected and disconnected through a pin. Knuckle
joint as it can be seen in Fig 3-10b; it consists of three main elements, the fork
( with double eyes), the pin and the solid rod ( with single eye).

5
There are several Mode of Failures for the knuckle joint. An analysis of the
96
different acting stresses in the knuckle joint gives the major dimensions ( d, d1,
d2 , a and b) of such a joint.
20
20
22

(a) Knukle Joint (b) Elements of a Knukle Joint

(c) Big toe pin joint (d) Piston-Pin connection

Figure 3-4 General view for a Knuckle joint with detailed elements and applications

140
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2

Figure 3-11 Main dimensions of Knuckle joint

5
96
20
20
22

Figure 3-12 Mode of Failures in Knuckle joint elements

3-4-1 Mode Failure by Tension Stresses

1-a) Tensile Yielding in Solid Rod ( Fig 3-12a),
𝐹
𝜎𝑡 = 𝐾𝑡 ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-5)
𝐴𝑅

where, Kt the stress concentration factor, and AR the cross section fork end rod area,

𝜋 𝑑2
𝐴𝑅 = 4

141
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
1-b) Tearing in Solid Rod eye ( Fig. 3-12b),
𝐹
𝜎𝑡−𝑏 = ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-6)
𝐴𝑒

where, Ab the cross section area for the b-thickness of the solid rod eye,

𝐴𝑏 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ! . 𝑏

1- c) Tearing in Fork Rod eyes for both sides ( Fig. 3-12b)

𝐹
𝜎𝑡−𝑎 = ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-7)
𝐴𝑒

where, Aa the cross section area for the a-height fork rod sides,

𝐴𝑎 = 2 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ! . 𝑎

5
96
3-4-2 Mode Failures by Shearing
20

2-a) Pin with double Shearing ( Fig 3-12c),

𝐹
𝜏= ≤ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-8)
𝐴𝑠
20

where, As the cross section area for the pin,

𝜋 .𝑑 2
𝐴𝑠 = 2 ( )
22

2-b) In Rod by Tearing in front of eye hole ( Fig. 3-6d),

𝐹
𝜏𝑏 = ≤ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-9)
𝐴𝑠−𝑏

where, As-b the cross section area for the pin,

𝐴𝑠−𝑏 = 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ! . 𝑏

2-c) In Fork by Tearing in front of eye hole top and bottom sides
(Fig 3-12d),

𝐹
𝜏𝑎 = ≤ 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-10)
𝐴𝑠−𝑎

where, As-a the cross section area for the pin,

𝐴𝑠−𝑎 = 2 𝑑2 − 𝑑1 ! . 𝑎

142
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2
3-4-3 Mode of Failures by Crushing / Bearing
3-a) at the Rod - Pin interface ( Fig. 3-12e)
𝐹
𝜎𝑏−𝑏 = ≤ 𝜎𝑏−𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-11)
𝐴𝑝
where the bearing or projected surface area is:
𝐴𝑝 = ( 𝑑1 . 𝑏 )

3-b) In Fork eye - Pin interfaces,

𝐹
𝜎𝑏−𝑎 = ≤ 𝜎𝑏−𝑎𝑙𝑙 (3-12)
𝐴𝑝

where the bearing or projected surface areafor the fork - pin interfaces is:

𝐴𝑝 = 2 ( 𝑑1 . 𝑎 )

5
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xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
WORKED EXAMPLE
20
20
22

143
DESIGN OF KEYS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS Part: 2

PROBLEMS
Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets
submitted with the supplied cover.

5
96
20
20
22

144
 Chapter 4
DESIGN OF
POWER SCREWS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Power screws convert the input rotation of an applied torque to an output translation with
an axial force. They find use in machines such as universal tensile testing machines,

5
machine tools, automotive jacks, vises, aircraft flap extenders, linear actuators,
96
micrometers, and C-clamps. The mechanical advantage inherent in the screw is exploited
to produce large axial forces in response to small torques – see examples in Fig 4-1.
Typical design considerations, discussed in the following sections, include kinematics,
20

force and stress analyses.

20
22

(a) Manually operated Power Screw (b) Motorized operated Power Screw

(c) Working Principle of Power Screw (Converts Torque into Linear Motion)

Figure 4-1 The Principle of Power Screw operation

145
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2

(a) the Machine PS with solid Nut

(c) the Ball PS

5
(b) the Machine PS with split Nut
96
(d) Details of Ball Nut for PS
20

Figure 4-2 The Two main types of Power Screws (PS) - Machine and Ball PSs

There are TWO principal categories of power screws, The Machine Power Screws, and
20

The Ball Power Screws. Examples for power screws are shown in Fig. 4.2. The screw
threads are typically formed by thread rolling, which results in high surface hardness,
22

high strength, and superior surface finish. Since high thread friction can cause self-
locking when the applied torque is removed, protective brakes or stops to hold the load
are usually not required.

Three thread forms that are often used are the Square thread, the Acme thread, and the
Buttress thread. As shown in Fig. 4.3. The Acme thread and the square thread exhibit
symmetric leading and trailing flank angles, and consequently equal strength in raising
and lowering. The Acme thread is inherently stronger than the square thread because of
the larger thread width at the root or minor diameter. The general purpose Acme thread
has θ = 14.50 flank angle and is manufactured in a number of standard diameter sizes and
thread spacing ( see Appendix E ). The buttress thread is proportionately wider at the
root than the Acme thread and is typically loaded on the θ = 70 flank rather than the 45-
degree flank.

146
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
Ball screws recirculate a number of steel balls between the screw rod and the nut, as
shown in Fig. 4.2d. The resulting rolling friction is significantly less than the sliding
friction of the machine screw type. Therefore, less input torque and power are needed.
However, motor brakes or screw stops are usually required to prevent ball screws from
self-lowering or overhauling.

5
96
20
20
22

Figure 4-4 Basic power screw thread forms,

(a) Square, (b) general-purpose Acme, and (c) buttress.
(All three forms are having the same pitch p)

147
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
4.2 Kinematics of Power Screw
The primary function or design requirement of a power screw is to move an axial load
(W) through a specified linear distance (X), called the travel. As a single-degree-of
freedom mechanism, screw travel is constrained between the fully extended position
Xmax and the closed or retracted position; Xmin (Fig 4-5a), therefore the power screw
output range of motion is Xmax - Xmin. As the input torque (T) is applied through an
angle of rotation Δθ, the screw travels ΔX, in proportion to the screw lead l (l = s.p,
where s is the number of starts – see Fig 4-5b) is given as:


X  l . ( ) (4-1)
2
Other kinematic requirements may be prescribed, such as velocity V or acceleration, by
taking the time derivatives of this equation, to obtain:

∆𝑋 𝑙 ∆𝜃
5
96
∆𝑡
= !.
2𝜋 ∆𝑡

where, their limits (∆t → zero ), is

20

𝑙
𝑣 = !. 𝜔 = 𝑙 .𝑛 (4-2)
20

2𝜋

Thus, for a given electric motor drive power (P), and with a required linear velocity (v)
22

of the travelled power screw or nut, the lead (l = s.p ) can be determined or its number of
starts (s) may be defined.

(a) Loads and Travel distances

(b) Multi-start power screw threads

Figure 4-5 Mechanics of Power Screw motion

148
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
4.3 Force Analysis

Under static equilibrium conditions, the screw rotates at a constant speed (n), in response to the input
torque (T), as shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 4.6a. In addition, the axial load force (W), normal
force (N), and sliding friction force (Ff ) act on the screw. The friction force opposes relative motion – as
shown in Fig. 4-6b.

(a) Power Screw with acting Loads (b) Free-Body-Diagram of a sliding body on a
Horizontal Plane

5
Figure 4.6 Force Analysis in Power Screw
96
From mechanics of a body sliding on a horizontal plane ( Fig. 4.6b), the following
relations are known:

F  .N
20

f
(4-3)

Where, the coefficient of friction (μ ) is:

20

F
  f
(4-4)
N
22

and the angle of friction ( β) is by definition:

tan    (4-5)
For multi-start thread screws (see Fig 4-5b), the lead ( l = s.p); which is equivalent to the
axial linear advance for one complete turn of the screw. The lead angle (α) - Notice that
the helix angle Ψ is the complementary angle of α and is measured from the screw
center line as shown in Fig. 4.5a. The screw lead angle is calculated from the
development of a single thread as shown in Fig. 4.6 by:

l
tan   (4-6)
.d

Figure 4.6 A development of a single thread

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DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
2.3.1 Force Analysis of SQUARE power screw
(Flank angle Ɵ = 0 )

For power screw of square thread form (Fig. 4.4a), the torque (Tr) required to raise the
carrying load (W) upward is as shown in Fig. 4.7C, is:

d
Tr  P .
2 (4.-7)

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96
20
20
22

Figure 4.7 Free-Body of the screw, when raising the load W.

where, the effort P applied at the circumference of the pitch or mean radius ½ d, can be
found from the static equilibrium of the nut shown in Fig. 4.7C, sliding upward as
follows:
a) Along the inclined plane (see Fig. 4.7C):

P cos  W sin    . N (4.8)

and

150
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
b) Normal to the inclined plane as:

N  W cos  P sin  (4-9)

Solving Eq.(4-8) and Eq.(4-9) together, one can get the effort P as follows:

tan   tan 
P  W
1  tan  . tan  (4-10)

or shortly as:

P  W . tan (    ) (4-11)

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96
Thus, the torque required to raise the load is:
20

d
T  W.( ) . tan (    ) (4-12)
r 2
20

When the load W is lowered (or going downward), as shown in Fig. 4.8, the same force
analysis results in:
22

d
T  W . ( ) . tan (    ) (4-13)
L 2

Figure 4-8 Free-Body of the screw, when Lowering the load W.

151
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
2.3.2 Force Analyses for ACME and BUTRESS Threads
(Flank angle Ɵ ≠ 0 )

Power screws with thread forms such as Acme (trapezoidal) or Buttress threads, are
having flank angle of 2θ (see Fig. 4.4 B and C), the normal reaction N’, between the
slanted surfaces of screw and nut – Fig. 4.9 - is increased compared to the normal
reaction N of Square threads (Fig. 4-4A), i.e.

N  N ' cos
or

N
N' 
cos (4-14)

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96
20
20
22

Figure 4.9 Normal reaction N’ on V-shaped power screw thread form

(ACME: Ɵ = 14.50, and Buttress: Ɵ = 70 )

Consequently, the frictional force opposing the relative motion between the nut and
screw in this case becomes:

N
F   . N '   .( ) (4-15)
f cos 
or, it can be written in the same form as Eq.(4-3) as:

F   .N (4-16)
f 1

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DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
where μ1 is known as “ virtual coefficient of friction”, and is given by:


 
1 cos  (4-17)
Such virtual coefficient of friction can be written in terms of a virtual friction angle β1
as:
tan   
1 1 (4-18)

Thus, all equations of Square threaded screw ( Eqs. 4-12 and 13), are valid, for Acme
and Buttress thread forms when replacing β by β1 .

So, the required applied torques Tr to raise the load (move the screw in the direction
opposing the load), is given by:
5
96
d
T  W .( ) . tan (    ) (4-19)
20

r 2 1

and to lower the load W by:

20

d
T  W. ( ) . tan (    ) (4-20)
22

L 2 1

It may be noted in the above equation, Eq (4-20), when lowering the load, if and
β1 < α , the applied torque will be NEGATIVE, which means that the load can
moves downward without the application of any external applied torque. Such a
condition is known as “ Over Hauling” of the screw. In design, this phenomenon must
be prevented, by making sure that at all times the following condition is satisfied:

β1 > α ( Self-Locking Condition)

which gives a condition known as “ Self-locking” of screw. In such a case, the friction
angle (β1) must be greater than the lead angle (α ).

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DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
4.4 Torque due to Collar Friction
To prevent the rotation of the load with the screw, when the external torque is applied, a
thrust collar is used – as shown in Fig. 4.9. As a result of using such a collar, an
addition torque (Tc) is required to overcome the interfacing friction between the collar
and the screw.

(a) Cup-type thrust collar (b) Disc-type thrust collar

5
96
Figure 4.9 Using of thrust Collar between the load and screw head end
20

The additional required torque Tc when using collar is:

Tc  c W Rc
(4-21)
20

where Rc is the friction radius of the collar interfacing surface; which can be one of two
values:
22

a) For Uniform Wear condition:

R  R
1 2
R  (4-22a)
c 2

b) For Non-Uniform wear condition:

R 3 3 
2  2  R
1

R 
 2  (4-22b)
c 3
R  R 2
 2 1 
For practical considerations, R1 = 0.5 dc, and R2= 2 dc.
Now, the total required maximum input torque (T) to turn the screw or the nut (i.e.
against the load or Upwoard), whichever is being rotated is:

T  Tr  Tc
(4-23)

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DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2

Figure 4-10 Main elements of a Power Screw Based Machine ( Auto jack)

5
96
A human being with an effort F ( Normally F= 200 : 400 N) can be applied as an input
external torque T, manually (see Fig 4-2a), to the end of a lever of Lh long ( Fig 4.10),
20

or motorized by a system of Gears/Belts as shown in Fig. 4.1B.

4.4 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY OF A POWER SCREW

20

Efficiency, as a commonly known, is the ratio of the OUTPUT work to the INPUT
22

work; i.e.

output mechanical work

 
input mechanical work

or

output mechanical work ( neglection friction )

 
Actual Work
thus
W. L
 
P . d

155
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2

5
96
Figure 4.11 Screw efficiency η versus thread lead angle α
20

Substituting the effort P from Eq. (4-11), and L/πd from Eq. (4.5) in the above
20

equation, neglecting collar friction, it yields:

tan 
 
22

tan (    ) (4-23)

Efficiency of a Square-threaded power screw with respect to the lead angle α , can be
plotted as shown in Fig. 4.11.

Note the importance of proper lubrication. For example, for α = 100 and μ = 0.05, the
efficiency η is over 75%. However, as the lubricant becomes contaminated with dirt and
dust or chemically breaks down over time, the friction coefficient can increase to μ =
0.30, resulting in an efficiency η = 35 percent, thereby doubling the torque, horsepower,
and electricity requirements.

Power screws have to be well lubricated and shielded with cover protected against dust,
dirt and other abrasive particles.

156
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2

4.6 Mode of Failures in Power Screws

Accurate analysis of the stresses in a power screw and nut is very complicated.
Experiments have shown that due to deflection, the majority of the load is carried on the
first one or two threads. Also, the clearance, fillet radii, surface finish and accuracy of
machining have a significant effect on the actual stress. In the simplified analysis
presented here, these effects are not taken into account, and it is assumed that the load is
evenly distributed over all the threads in contact with the nut.

Mainly, a power screw consists of THREE main elements. The Screw rod, the Nut and
the Handle. Each one of these elements has its own mode of failure as illustrated in Fig
4-12. A power screw must have adequate strength to withstand axial load (W) and the

5
applied torque (T). The following subsections, discuss the different types of Mode
96
Failure that are expected to take place in the power screw. Here the design problem is to
determine the screw form and size (d), the maximum lifting load capacity (W), the nut
thickness (h), the handle diameter and length (d and Lh), and the materials from which
20

each element of a power screw is made from.

20
22

Figure 4-12 Mode of Failures in Power Screw components

4.6.1 Compression Mode of Failure in Screw Rod

Power screws are subjected to either axial tensile or compressive stresses (see Fig 4-13).
The normal stresses acting at the root or core cross-section is:
𝑊
𝜎 = ≤ 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙 (4-24)
𝐴𝑐

157
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
where Ac the core cross section area of the power screw,
2
𝜋 . 𝑑𝑐
𝐴𝑐 = =
4
Where Standard dimensions for different power screws are listed in Appendix E.

Hint: Select an initial choice for the Power screw rod steel material, say AISI 1015 AR,
then define the core cross section area Ac and its corresponding standard.

5
96
20

Figure 4-13 Power Screw can be subjected to either

a Compression Load or a Tension Load
20

4.6.2 Buckling Failure of Power Screw

This equation is only valid for short screw and for rough estimation of the power screw
22

standard size, but for longer slender screw subjected to axial compressive load (Fig 4-
13A), a buckling failure may occur. The Euler formula can be used as a Design
Equation to estimate the critical load Wcr , at which buckling will occur for relatively
long screws of effective column length Le, and minimum second moment of inertia I as
follows:

𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑾𝒄𝒓 = ≥ 𝑾 (4-25)
𝑳𝟐𝒆

Equation (4-25) shows that Wcr does not depend on the strength of the material but only
on the modulus of elasticity (E) and the dimensions of the column (I and Le). Thus, two
dimensionally identical slender power screws, one of high strength steel and the other of
ordinary steel, will buckle under the same critical load because they have the same
modulus of elasticity.

158
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
The effective power screw length Le = k . L, where the k-factor depends on the end
fixation condition of power screw as shown in Fig 4-14.

Sometimes, the slenderness ratio ( S = Le / R) can be used to define short Screws

( when Le / R < 80 ), and long screws ( if Le / R > 80). The Radius of Gyration (R) is a
𝐼
cross section area property ( i.e. 𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐
). Also, it is practically noticed that Euler’s

formula works good for very long columns or screws.

5
96
Figure 4-13 End column conditions factor (k)
20

for Slender power screw rods

20

Applying the design equation (4-25) can check Buckling of power screw for its
maximum length. Also, the same Eq(4-250 can be used to define the proper diameter
size.
22

4.6.3 Failure of Power Screw due to Combined Loading

When applying the external torque (T) to raise the load W, the twisting moment induces
a shear stresses ( τxy ); which are maximum at the roots of the screw, and is given by:
𝑑
𝑇 .( 𝑐 )
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 2
𝐽

or
16 𝑇
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = (4-26)
𝜋 . 𝑑𝑐 3

Thus, as one can notice, that power screw rod is subjected to both axial stress
- Eq (4-24), and Torsional shear stress – Eq (4-26). Applying the Distortion Energy
Failure Theory (DET) or Von Mises theory, where in general:

159
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
S      . 3.
e
2
x y
2
x y
2
xy
 all
(4-27)

after simplification ( σx = 0 and σy = σc), one gets:

S   3.
e
2
c
2
xy
 all
(4-28)

This Design Equation can be used to check the selected mayerial for the power screw
rod, or its factor of safety.

4.6.3 Bearing /Crushing Mode of Failure between Teeth

5
During the working of power screw, engaged teeth from nut and screw are trying to
96
smash or crush each other (Fig 4- 14a ). The nominal bearing stress ( σb ) on a nut or
20
20
22

(a) Power screw and its Nut

(b) Half section in a Nut (c) Solid Nut details

Figure 4-14 Engagement of a nut and a screw

160
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
screw depends on the number of engaged threads z of pitch p and engaged thickness H =
z p, and is obtained from:

𝑊
𝜎𝑏 = ≤ 𝜎𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 (4-28)
𝐴𝑝

where, the allowable bearing stresses (σb all ) are given in Appendix F, for different
combinations of screws and nuts materials. The projected area (Ap) between Z- engaged
teeth is:

𝜋 𝑑 𝑜2 − 𝑑 𝑐2 . 𝑍
𝐴𝑝 = (Bearing Area between Z-teeth)
4

4.6.4 Teeth Strip-off or Shearing Mode of Failure

5
96
Threads may also shear or strip off the screw or nut because of the axial load force (W),
which is approximately parabolically distributed (see Fig 3-15a) over the cylindrical
surface area As [As = π dc b z ], shown in Fig 4-14a. The area depends on the width b of
20

the thread at the root ( for Nut or Screw ?) and the number of engaged threads z. The
maximum transverse shear stress is estimated by:
20

𝜏max =
3 𝑊
≤ 𝜏 𝑎𝑙𝑙
(4-29)
2 𝐴𝑠
22

For square threads, tooth width at the root is: b = ½ p (see Fig 4-4a), and Eq (4-29) for
the maximum transverse shear stress for the nut thread is:

𝜏max =
3 𝑊
≤ 𝜏 𝑎𝑙𝑙
(4-30)
𝜋 𝑑𝑐 𝐻

The root diameter of the screw is used since the stripping shear stress for the screw is
somewhat larger than for the nut.

4.6.5 Turning Handle Lever Mode of Failure

The total torque (T) required to operate the power screw, can be obtained through an
electric Motor (Fig 4-1b), or through a turning lever Rod (Fig 4-1a). For manually
operated power screw, a force (F = 200:400) can be applied as shown in Fig 4-15.

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DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2

Figure 4-15 Manually operated power screw press, with a handle (Lh, and dh)

In this case, the handle, as a cantilevers is subjected to a combined stresses Mode

Failure; due to bending stress and direct shearing:
𝑀 . 𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑥 32 (𝐹 . 𝐿ℎ )
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐼 𝜋 . 𝑑 ℎ3

and
5
96
4𝐹
𝜏 =
𝜋 . 𝑑 ℎ2

Using Von Mises failure theory:

20

S   3.
e
2
b
2
  all
(4-31)
20

This Design Equation can be used to select the right material for the power screw handle,
or to check its factor of safety if materials is given.
22

4 .7 Power Screw Design Strategy

After determining the torque required (Tr) to raise axial load W, and the extra value
required to overcome collar friction (Tc), all the external loads on the screw element are
known, and the screw shaft can then be analyzed for its ability to resist these loads.
Similarly, the same loads act on the nut, and this element can also therefore be analysed
for strength.

In the examples of the lifting jack and screw press shown at Fig 4-15, the screw and nut
elements can be designed without considering the frame arrangements. In this case,
therefore, the steps listed below are appropriate in the design of screw rod, nut and its
handle.

162
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2

a) Select an initial material and thread form for the screw, according to its design
purpose;

b) Select a trial screw rod diameter (dc) with strength to withstand stresses due to
axial load only (Eq 4-24);

c) If Buckling Failure is a possibility, determine required diameter of screw shaft

based on this requirement (Eq 4-25);

d) Using the screw rod diameter from (c) , determine thread dimensions, and stresses
on screw rod (namely, Compression and torsional) ;

5
e) Apply Different Mode of failures, to compare stresses induced in screw rod with
96
strength of material selected - Eq 4-28;

f) Select new screw rod material, to confirm an adequate factor of safety.

20
20

4.8 Other Power Screw Design Considerations

22

A number of other important design factors should also be considered. Principal among
these is lubrication. Greases using lithium thickeners with antioxidants and EP additives
are effective in providing acceptable coefficients of sliding friction and corrosion
protection. For operating environments which expose the screw threads to dust, dirt, or
water, a protective boot, made of a compatible material, is recommended.

Maintenance procedures should ensure that the screw threads are free of contaminants
and have a protective film of grease. Operation at ambient temperatures in excess of
100oC requires special lubricants and boot materials as recommended by the
manufacturer. Screw and nut threads will wear with use, especially in heavy-duty-cycle
applications, increasing the backlash from the as-manufactured allowance.

Use of adjustable split nuts and routine inspection of thread thickness is recommended.
Power screws employing electric motors are often supplied with integral limit switches

163
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
to control extension and retraction. To prevent ejection of the screw in case of a limit
switch failure, a stop nut can be added. In addition, a torque-limiting clutch can be
integrated at the motor to prevent equipment damage.

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96
20
20
22

164
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
PROBLEMS

Answer the following assigned problems on separate sheets submitted with the supplied
cover.

1. A single-threaded power screw of 25 mm in diameter with a pitch of 5 mm. A

vertical load on the screw reaches a maximum of 6 kN. The coefficients of
friction are 0.05 for the collar and 0.08 for the threads. The frictional diameter of
the collar is 40 mm. Find the overall efficiency and the torque to raise the load.

2. A trapezoidal single-start metric thread, diameter 30 mm is used with an axial

load of 2 kN. Assuming average friction, determine the torque required to
continuously raise or lower the load.

5
96
3. If the screw thread given in Prob 2, transmits the thrust load by means of a collar
of outside diameter 50 mm and inside diameter 25 mm, calculate the torque now
20

required to raise and lower the load and the efficiency when raising the load.

4. The screw given in Prob 3, is made of steel with yield point 250 MPa. If the load
20

is compressive, determine the maximum allowable travel and the critical

buckling load at this length. If a design factor of 5 is applied, determine also
22

whether the screw is safe in buckling. Assume flexible end supports.

5. A vertical two – start square threaded screw of a 100mm mean diameter, and 20
mm pitch, is used to support a vertical load of 18 KN. The axial thrust on the
screw is taken by a collar bearing of 100 and 250 mm inner and outer diameters
respectively.

Determine the force required at the end of 400 mm long lever, in order to lift
and to lower the load. [ use coefficient of friction for the screw – nut interface of
0.15 and 0.22 for the collar].

6. Repeat the above problem when using Acme thread of 14.50 flank angle, then
compare the efficiency of both of them ( Square versus Acme threads)

165
DESIGN OF POWER SCREWS ___ Part: 2
7. The lead screw of a lathe has Acme threads of 50 mm outside diameter and 8
mm pitch. The screw must exert an axial force of 2.5 KN in order to drive the
machine carriage. The thrust is taken by a collar od 55 and 110 mm inner and
outer diameters, when the lead screw rotates at 30 rpm.
Determine: (a) The power required to drive the lead screw, and (b) The
mechanical efficiency of such a lead screw.
[ assume 0.18 coefficient of friction of for the screw and 0.12 for the collar]

8. Make a complete design for a manually - operated single-threaded power screw

press; which can be used for shaft straightening, by applying a compressive
force of 8.5 KN for a maximum advance of 250 mm.
Your design should include the drawing and design of:

Screw -
5
Nut - Collar - Handle - frame.
96
9. Make a complete design for a manually - operated single Square -threaded power
screw press; which can be used for lifting a load of W = 18 KN for a maximum
20

travel vertical distance of Lmax = 850 mm.

20
22

10. For above Lifting Machine, Design the Bolted Joint Holding the horizontal
Overarm to the main frame.
11. Foe the Same lifting machine shown above, SELECT the appropriate STEEL
alloy foe the 80 ϕ vertical support (i.e. Column), according to Each of the
following Failure Theory:
a) Von-Mises b) Tresca, and c ) Maximum Normal.

Question: Which Failure Theory is MORE Conservative?

166
 5
96 REFERENCE
20
STANDARD TABLES
20
22

Please, DO NOT write or make ANY marks on these Tables and Charts

167
 Appendix ( A )

Properties of Cross-sections

The following area properties are for the most common plan sections,

needed in this course.

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96
20
20
22

168
 Appendix ( B )
Design for Manufacturing ( DFM )

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96
20
20
22

169
 Appendix ( B )
Design for Manufacturing ( DFM )

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96
20
20
22

170
 Appendix ( B )
Design for Manufacturing ( DFM )

5
96
20
20
22

171
 Appendix ( C )

(a) Stress Concentration Factors (Kt)

5
“Plate with drilled Hole”
96
20
20
22

172
 Appendix ( C )
(b) Stress Concentration Factors (Kt)
“Stepped Shaft”

5
96
20
20
22

173
 5
96
20

Appendix ( C )
20

(c) Stress Concentration Factors (Kt)

“Stepped Plate”
22

174
 5
96
Appendix ( C )
(d) Stress Concentration Factors (Kt)
20

“Recessed Shaft”
20
22

175
 5
96
20
20

Appendix ( C )
22

(e) Stress Concentration Factors (Kt)

“Through Holes”

176
 Engineering Materials Properties

(For General Purpose Applications)

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96
20
20
22

177
 Appendix ( D )
Engineering Materials Properties
(AISI Standard Materials)
(a) Steel materials

5
96
20
20
22

178
 Engineering Materials Properties
(AISI Standard Materials)
(b) Cast Irons

5
96
20
20
22

179
 Engineering Materials Properties
(AISI Standard Materials)
(c) Nonferrous Materials

5
96
20
20
22

180
 Appendix ( E )

Metric Threads Standard

Pitch
Nominal Depth
Metric
Thread
5
Standard
Pitch
Size
Diameter
dp or Dp
Core Diameter
Of Thread
Bolt
Stress
Core
Area
96
Designation P (D=d) Ac
mm mm Bolt Nut mm mm2
mm dc Dc
mm mm
20

M5 0.8 5.000 4.480 4.019 4.134 0.491 14.2

20

M6 1.0 6.000 5.350 4.773 4.918 0.613 20.1

M7 1.0 7.000 6.350 5.773 5.918 0.613 28.9

22

M8 1.25 8.000 7.188 6.466 6.647 0.767 36.6

M 10 1.5 10.000 9.026 8.160 8.876 0.920 58,3

M 12 1.75 12.000 10.863 9.858 10.106 1.074 84.0

M 14 2.0 14.000 12.701 11.546 11.835 1.227 115

M 16 2.0 16.000 14.701 13.546 13.835 1.227 157

M 18 2.5 18.000 16.375 14.933 15.294 1.534 192

181
M 20 2.5 20.000 18.376 16. 933 17.294 1.534 245

M 22 2.25 22.000 20.376 18.933 19. 294 1, S34 303

M 24 3.0 24 000 22.051 20.320 20.752 1.640 353

M 27 3.0 27.000 25.051 23.320 23.752 1.640 459

M 3O 3.5 30.000 27.727 25.706 26.211 2.147 561

M 33 3.5 33.000 30.727 28.706 29.211 2.147 694

5
96
M 36 4.0 36.000 33.402 31.093 31.670 2.54 817

M 39 4.0 39.000 36.402 34.093 34.670 2.454 976

20

M 42 4.5 42.000 39.077 36.416 37.129 2.760 1104

20

M 45 4.5 45.000 42.077 39.416 40.129 2.760 1300

22

M 48 5.0 48.000 44.752 41.795 42.587 3.067 1465

M 52 5.0 52.000 48.752 45.795 46.587 3.067 1755

M 56 5.5 56.000 52.428 49.177 50.046 3.067 2022

M 60 5.5 60.000 56.428 53.177 54.046 3.374 2360

182
 Appendix ( F )

Standard Metric Sizes for Power Screw

(a-1) Square Thread Form (Fine Series)

5
96
20
20
22

183
 Standard Metric Sizes for Power Screw
(a-2) Square Thread Form (Coarse Series)

5
96
20
20
22

184
 Standard Metric Sizes for Power Screw
(b) ACME (Trapezoidal) Thread Form

5
96
20
20
22

185
 Appendix ( G )
Power Screws
(a) Coefficient of Friction (Between Teeth, μ)
Average
No. Condition Friction Coefficient
starting running
1 Best running conditions for high-grade
0.14 0.10
materials and workmanship.
2 Average running conditions and
average quality materials and 0.18 0.13
workmanship.
3 Poor workmanship or very slow and
frequent motion with insufficient
0.21 0.15

5
lubrication or running conditions for
high grade materials and.
96
(b) Coefficient of Friction (Thrust Collar, μc)
20

Average
Materials Friction Coefficient
20

No. starting running

1 Soft STEEL on Cast Iron 0.17 0.12

22

2 Hardened STEEL on Cast Iron 0.15 0.09

3 Soft STEEL on Bronze 0.10 0.08
4 Hardened STEEL on Bronze 0.08 0.06

(c) Allowable Bearing Stresses (σb)

Materials Safe
Type Bearing
of
Power Screw
Screw Nut Stress, σb Rubbing speed, v ( m / s )
(M Pa)
Hand press Steel Bronze 17.0 - 24.0 Low speed, well lubricated
Jack-screw Steel Cast iron 12.0 - 17.0 Low speed; v < 2.5
Jack-screw Steel Bronze 11.0 - 17.0 Low speed; v < 3
Hoisting Medium speed; v = ( 6 - 12 )
Steel Cast iron 4.0 - 7.0
screw
Hoisting Medium speed; v = ( 6 - 12 )
Steel Bronze 5.5 - 10.0
screw

186
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Instructors: Prof. Dr A. M. Abdelhay
rd
3 Year Production (Retard) Jan 24th , 2017
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 140 Marks Time allowed: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫يسنح فقط ةبلكتب و النزاجع النجمذة و غًـــز مسنىح مطمقـــــب ةبالوراق النفزدة‬

Question # 1 ( 40 Marks)

A rope-hoist system is shown in figure. The tension in

ropes are P1 =52 KN and P2 = 48 KN. The indicated
dimensions are initial requirements for such a design.

Now, DO as required:

a) A Design for the Horizontal solid round support

5
(B) according to the max distortion energy failure theory.
96
b) The product concept for the Pin- rope sheave assembly.
c) The required fit between the Pin C and the rope-sheave,
to ensure free running fit, and their limiting dimensions.
20
20

Question # 2 ( 30 Marks)

A Square-thread power screw is designed to elevate

a load of W= 52 KN for a vertical distance Lmax = 1800 mm.
22

The following are required:

a) A full design for the Square-thread screw,

b) A full design for the Square-thread Nut,and
c) A full design of the Turning Handle.

Question # 3 ( 30 Marks)

The layout of a Single-Stage spur gear box is shown in figure.

For the given rated power, DO as follows:

a) Design the input Shaft AB (I), according to

the maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory.
b) Determine the appropriate Rectangular Key that is used.
c) The configuration of Shaft AB (I).

1 of 1 Best Wishes ….
187
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Instructors: Prof. Dr A. M. Abdelhay and Dr \ Nader Farrhat
nd
2 Year Industrial Jan 11th , 2018
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 90 Marks Time allowe d: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫يسنخ فقط ةبلكتب و النزاجع النجمذة و غًـــز مسنىح مطمقـــــب ةبالوراق النفزدة‬

Question # 1 ( 30 Marks)

An overhead crane has a maximum lifting load capacity

of P =55 KN. The over arm and its vertical support is
Riveted lap joint with THREE equally sized size (d).

Now, DO as required:

a) A Design for the Horizontal over arm, according to the

Maximum shear failure theory(i.e. Tresca).
5
96
b) The Design of the used Riveted Lap Joint.
( Use AISI 1020 for rivets’STEEL material).
.
20

Question # 2 ( 35 Marks)
20

A Square-thread power screw is designed to elevate

a load of W= 52 KN for a vertical distance Lmax = 1650 mm.
The following are required:
22

a) A full design for the Square-thread scre w,

b) A full design for the Square-thread Nut,and
c) A full design of the Turning Handle.

Question # 3 ( 25 Marks)

The layout of a Single-Stage spur gear box is shown in figure.

For the given rated power, DO as follows:

a) Design the input Shaft AB (I), according to

the maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory.
b) Determine the appropriate Rectangular Key that is used.
c) The configuration of Shaft AB (I).

1 of 1 Best Wishes ….
188
 Final Research Exam at the time of the CO-VID(19) July 2020

Mechanical Design with the aid of Computer ( 3rd Year Production- Makeup Exam)

Dams with Hydraulic gates are used to stop water flow in rivers, lakes, and channels. The gate is
moving up and downwith a velocity(V), with FIXED Square-Thread- Power Screw; which is operated by
an AC electric motor with the aid of a Single pair of Spur gear (HINT: The HUB of the Driven Spur gear is
machined to be the rotating NUT of the power screw)as shown Schematically by the given Front and
Plan Views.

I: Write down a Research paper On “ Hydraulic Gates”, in accordance to

the Given Research Template
(Your Introduction must be a brief about Hydraulic Gates, Types, Usage, Main Components and main working Principle).

II: For such a Case Study, It is asking to address the following, using YOUR assigned data in the

5
TABLE below:

96
1- The Standard Design Procedure for the Mounting Flange with the
gate, using n – bolts arranged at D pcd, to safely lift the gates against its
Weight (W) and Water pressure of head (H),
20
2- Design of Lifting Power Screw, with gate’s travelling velocity of V
(m/min),
20

3- Design of the used Spur gear Pair (AC motor of 10KW and 2450 rpm- Pay
attention to V),
4- Design of main Input Shaft (Shaft length LL ) together with its KEY,
22

5- Select the Right Deep Groove Ball bearings; which are supporting the main
input Shaft, and Finally
6- The Configuration of the Main Input Shaft (Product Concept, DFM, DFA,
Dimensions, Fits, and Tolerances for mating parts)

P. S.

DO your own work on your own effort will get you PASS this course, Otherwise (Coping
from others or internet ) will make YOU RE-attend this 2-Term course .

Best Wishes

189
 5
96
20
20

For YOUR specific Research (Case Study) Select ONE ROW of the following data

( In accordance to YOUR Arabic FIRST letter (‫) أول ﺣﺮف ﻣﻦ اﺳﻤﻚ اﻻول‬
22

1st Letter in
W H LL V
your Arabic nXD
(KN) (m) (mm) (m/min)
Name
–‫د–ج–ح‬ 20 5 4 Bolts x 280 200 1.2
‫خ – ھـ‬
‫ع–غ–ف‬ 40 4 6 Bolts X 300 240 1.5
‫–ق–ث‬
–‫ص–ض‬ 25 6 4 Bolts x 180 180 1.8
‫ط‬-‫ك –م‬
–‫ن–ت–أ‬ 35 4.5 6 Bolts x 400 220 2.1
‫ ب‬-‫ل‬
–‫ي–س‬ 16 5.5 4 Bolts X 250 250 1.5
‫ش–ظ–ز‬
‫و–ر–ذ‬ 50 4.2 8 Bolts x 320 160 1.4

190
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Instructors: Prof. Dr A. M. Abdelhay
3rd Year Production/Mechatronics April 2nd , 2017
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 20 Marks Time allowed: 1 Hr

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫يسنخ فقط ةبلكتب و النزاجع النجمذة و غًـــز مسنىح مطمقـــــب ةبالوراق النفزدة‬
Question # 1 ( 12 Marks)
Ф
A steel rope-hoist system is attached to a column by a 60 overarm
Structural steel beam (AISI 1020). Such an overarm is jointed with
5 equally sized rivets of d diameter. It is required to Do the following:

a) If the working load F is varied between 0.5 to 3.5 KN, then Check
Ф
the safety of design for infinite life of such 60 overarm, according to
the Modified Goodman failure Theory.

b)The minimum appropriate rivet size (d), when the working load F is
at its maximum value (i.e. F = 2.5 KN).

Question # 2 ( 8 Marks)

5
A 10 KW wind turbine is using a Single-stage spur gear box of input speed
n1= 200 rpm and output speed of n2 = 1155 rpm.
Fully design such spur gear set according to the Modified Lewis Design criteria.
96
================================================= GooD LucK
20
20
22

191
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Prof. Dr\ A. M. Abdelhay and Dr \ Nader Fouad
3rd Year Production June 26th , 2022
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 140 Marks (Retard) Time allowed: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺘﺐ و اﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺪة و ﻏﯿـــﺮ ﻣﺴﻤﻮح ﻣﻄﻠﻘـــــﺎ ﺑﺎﻻوراق اﻟﻤﻔﺮدة‬
Question # 1 ( 25 + 25 Marks)

A manual press of W=40 KN capacity with 375 mm

maximum vertical travel distance.
It is required to DESIGN:

a) The Bolted ( or Riveted) joint used to attach the press

Overarm with it’s supporting column.

b) The Square power screw and its Bronze Nut,

and it’s turning Handle.

Question # 2 ( 30 + 10 Marks)
5
96
A single-stage Spur gear Box is used to drive a stone crusher
with a speed of 100 rpm, when it is connected to an AC motor
of 4 KW running at 800 rpm. A 20o pressure angle Spur gear pair
20

is transmitting this power between Shaft I and II with the aid of

rectangular keys.
It is required to do as follows:
20

a) A complete design for output Shaft II, according to

The Maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory.

b) A proper Key to be used on Shaft II, with 76 mm hub width.

22

Question # 3 (25 + 15 + 10 Marks)

For the given geabox of the above problem, make the following:
a) A complete design of the used Spur gear pair, in accordance to the Standard Design Procedure.

b) Make a proper design selection for the Ball Bearings; that are used in supporting and mounting
the output shaft II, with an additional axial load of 20% of it’s radial gear load.

c) A Construction Drawing for Shaft II; taking into account the principles of DFM and DFA.

Best Whishes
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1 of 1

192
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Computer Aided Mechanical Design (MEC 57332)
Prof. Dr\ A. M. Abdelhay and Dr \ Nader Fouad
rd
3 Year Mechatronic June 26th , , 2022
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 120 Marks(retard) Time allowed: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺘﺐ و اﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺪة و ﻏﯿـــﺮ ﻣﺴﻤﻮح ﻣﻄﻠﻘـــــﺎ ﺑﺎﻻوراق اﻟﻤﻔﺮدة‬
Question # 1 ( 15 + 25 Marks)

A manual press of W=40 KN capacity with 375 mm

maximum vertical travel distance.
It is required to DESIGN:

a) The Bolted ( or Riveted) joint used to attach the press

Overarm with it’s supporting column.

b) The Square power screw and its Bronze Nut,

and it’s turning Handle.

Question # 2 ( 20 + 10 Marks)
5
96
A single-stage Spur gear Box is used to drive a stone crusher
with a speed of 100 rpm, when it is connected to an AC motor
of 4 KW running at 800 rpm. A 20o pressure angle Spur gear pair
20

is transmitting this power between Shaft I and II with the aid of

rectangular keys.
It is required to do as follows:
20

a) A complete design for output Shaft II, according to

The Maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory.

b) A proper Key to be used on Shaft II, with 80 mm hub width.

22

Question # 3 (25 + 15 + 10 Marks)

For the given geabox of the above problem, make the following:
a) A complete design of the used Spur gear pair, in accordance to the Standard Design Procedure.

b) Make a proper design selection for the Ball Bearings; that are used in supporting and mounting
the output shaft II, with an additional axial load of 20 % of it’s radial gear load.

c) A Construction Drawing for Shaft II; taking into account the principles of DFM and DFA.

Best Whishes
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

1 of 1

193
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Prof. Dr A. M. Abdelhay and Dr Nader Fouad
rd
3 Year Production Sept , 2019
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 140 Marks Time allowed: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫يسنخ فقط ةبلكتب و النزاجع النجمذة و غًـــز مسنىح مطمقـــــب ةبالوراق النفزدة‬

Question # 1 ( 20 Marks)

A mechanical Clamp is used to exert a clamping load

W= 1.8 KN, as shown in figure. If the maximum required
travel distance is of Lmax=1550 mm.
If a Square-thread power screw (PS) is proposed,
then the following are required:
a) A suitable steel material for the over arm, using

5
“The Max Normal Stress failure Theory.
96
b) A full design for the Square-thread Screw, and its Nut.
b) The product concept of the Collar with PS end
20

a) The appropriate fit for the sleeve nut with its hosting
Bore in the over arm frame.
20

Question # 2 ( 40 Marks
A mechanical steel riveted joint is shown in figure. Based on the shown joint configuration, What would be
22

safe minimum rivet size (d) that can be used ? (Given: P1= 10 KN and P2=8 KN

194
Question # 3 ( 80 Marks)

Given the shown schematic diagram for a lifting wire

hoist system of 28 KN load capacity.
The system is driven by an AC –electric motor
of 3.2 KW at 750 rpm, through a Single-Stage spur gear box as
shown in figure.

For the given rated power, DO as follow

a) Using “AGMA standard procedure”,
b) make a fully Design for this pair of spur gear, if the pinion is made from grey cast iron
(Grade 20), and meshing gear is from AISI 4027 steel alloy.
c) Design for the input Shaft AB (I) of 210 span, according to the maximum
Shear Stress Failure Theory.
d) Select the right ball bearings, if 18,000 Hrs life time.
e) Determine the appropriate Rectangular Key that is used.

5
f) The configuration of Shaft AB (I).
96
1 of 1 Best Wishes ….
20
20
22

195
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Prof. Dr\ A. M. Abdelhay and Dr \ Nader Fouad
2nd Year Industrial (Retard) Feb., 2021
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 90 Marks Time allowed: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺘﺐ و اﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺪة و ﻏﯿـــﺮ ﻣﺴﻤﻮح ﻣﻄﻠﻘـــــﺎ ﺑﺎﻻوراق اﻟﻤﻔﺮدة‬

Question # 1 ( 40 Marks)

A rope-hoist system is shown in figure. The tension in

ropes are P1 =52 KN and P2 = 48 KN. The indicated
dimensions are initial requirements for such a design.

Now, DO as required:

a) A Design for the Horizontal solid round support

(B) according to the max distortion energy failure theory.

5
b) The product concept for the Pin- rope sheave assembly.
96
c) The required fit between the Pin C and the rope-sheave,
to ensure free running fit, and their limiting dimensions.
20

Question # 2 ( 20 Marks)

A Square-thread power screw is designed to elevate

20

a load of W= 52 KN for a vertical distance Lmax = 1800 mm.

The following are required:
22

a) A full design for the Square-thread screw,

b) A full design for the Square-thread Nut,and
c) A full design of the Turning Handle.

Question # 3 ( 30 Marks)

The layout of a Single-Stage spur gear box is shown in figure.

For the given rated power, DO as follows:

a) Design the input Shaft AB (I), according to

the maximum Shear Stress Failure Theory.
b) Determine the appropriate Rectangular Key that is used.
c) The configuration of Shaft AB (I).

1 of 1 Best Wishes ….

196
 Mechanical Engineering Department
Machine Elements (MEC 6213)
Prof. Dr\ A. M. Abdelhay and Dr \ Nader Fouad
2nd Year Industrial Feb, 2021
Faculty of Engineering Total mark: 90 Marks Time allowed: 3 Hrs

This is an OPEN BOOKs Exam

‫ﯾﺴﻤﺢ ﻓﻘﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺘﺐ و اﻟﻤﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻤﺠﻠﺪة و ﻏﯿـــﺮ ﻣﺴﻤﻮح ﻣﻄﻠﻘـــــﺎ ﺑﺎﻻوراق اﻟﻤﻔﺮدة‬

Question # 1 ( 40 Marks =10+10+10+10)

A rope hoist lifting system is designed to raise a Load
W = 18 KN for a vertical distance of 4 m .
It is Required:

a) For safe design the minimum bracket thickness (t).

b) The minimum size for the shown rivet configuration (d).

c) The type of FIT to be used to assemble Pin (dp),

to ensure free running of the rope pulley over it,
and their Limiting dimensions together with the
5
96
pulley’s Bore.
d) The working drawing for the Pin taking into account
20

Both of the DFM and the DFA principles.

Question # 2 [ 50 Marks = 20 +15+10+5 ]

20

The machine shown in figure, is based on Power Screw to raise a load of W= 68 KN for a maximum
vertical distance Xmax = 1.75 m. The required power for the power screw is obtained from a 2-stage gear
22

box; which is driven by an AC-motor of rated power P =2.5 KW.

Make a safe Design for:

a) The Power Screw and its Bronze Nut.

b) The driving input shaft( I ), according to the Maximum
Shear Stress Failure Theory (i.e. Tresca)
c) The rectangular key; which can be used for the shaft (I).
d) The Shaft configuration of the input shaft ( I).

1 of 1 Best Wishes ….

197
 Third Year Production\Industrial Engineering Term Project
For “ Machine Elements “ Course
(2023-2024)

10 Marks For Excellent Work Done

5
Term Mini Project Title: “A Mechanical Device Based On Using Power Screw Element”

96
This is a Group Team work Project – Everyone is involved, and consists of THREE stages of WORK

20
activities as follows:
20
Stage ONE:
22
Fully Design of a Selected Approved Device By YOUR Instructor;
where STANDARD Design Procedure Is Followed.

1
198
Stage TWO: Design Calculations
1) Full Design Calculations are presented’ with appropriate failure theories are selected.
2) Neat Sketched are essential for calculations.
3) End your design for critical parts with NEAT WORKING DRAWING using any software or
manual drawing technique.

5
Stage THREE : ( The Submission )

96
You are Expected to :

20
1) Prepare a concise and Neat REPORT to include all the Design Calculations of your WORK ,
2) Make a Power Point Presentation for 20 minutes duration time, and
20
3) Submit a CD/DVD, to include all Soft copies of your own work.
4) Study Your report content of yours and Answer any Question related to it !
22

Best Wishes For all of YOU

2
199
Course Description:

5
96
20
20
22

200
 Abdelhay Mohamed Abdelhay (35 Years of experience)

Prof. Dr. Eng. \ Abdelhay Mohammed Abdelhay

Full Professor, and Ex Head Department, Mechanical Engineering

5
Dept., Faculty of Engineering Helwan University.
96
Prof. Abdelhay has an over thirty years of experience in
administration, teaching, research, consulting and training at the
20

Helwan University, the Alabama University (USA), Yanbu Industrial

College (Saudi Arabia) and several public and private educational
20

institutions in Egypt. He has got “The Most Outstanding Dissertation

Award”; (USA - 1991), The Best Mechanical Invention Award - 3rd
Awar
Position (Saudi Arabia - 1994) and the “Prize of State for Engineering
22

2004-05).
Sciences (Egypt 2004

([email protected]
[email protected] )
Mobile : (+2) 01226544545
Phone : (+2) 02-23590240
(+2) 02-33112938