GENERAL PHYSICS

BASICS PRINCIPLE OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Scientific investigation is a systematic and structured process used to explore and understand a
physical phenomenon or problem. This subtopic examines the basic principles that form the
foundation of the scientific method in Physics and are essential for conducting experiments,
collecting data, and drawing meaningful conclusions.

Key Terms:
Investigate: To conduct a systematic and thorough inquiry into a phenomenon or problem, often
involving research, experimentation, and data collection.
Collect data: To gather and record information, often in numerical or quantitative form, to help
answer a question, test a hypothesis, or understand a phenomenon.
Analyzing data: Involves examining and interpreting the data collected during an experiment or
investigation to extract meaningful information and draw conclusions.
Observe: To carefully watch, listen, or otherwise perceive a phenomenon or event, often to
gather information, identify patterns, or note changes.
Explore: To investigate or examine a phenomenon, system, or process in order to gain a deeper
understanding of its properties, behavior, or underlying principles.
Hypothesis: An educated guess or tentative explanation for a phenomenon or problem, often
based on prior knowledge, research, or observation, and tested through experimentation or
further investigation.
Examine: To carefully inspect, scrutinize, or analyze something, often to gather more detailed
information, identify characteristics, or understand relationships.
Conclusion: Summarize findings and determine if hypothesis is supported.
Experimentation
Is a core component of the scientific method and a fundamental process in scientific
investigation, It involves a controlled procedure carried out to test a hypothesis, explore a
phenomenon, or demonstrate a known fact or this is the active process of testing ideas by
systematically manipulating variables and observing the outcomes under controlled conditions.
It's a cornerstone of how we build robust scientific
Purpose of Experimentation:
To Test Hypotheses: The primary purpose of most scientific experiments is to determine if a
proposed explanation (hypothesis) for an observation is supported or refuted by evidence.
To Establish Cause-and-Effect Relationships: Experiments are uniquely powerful in their
ability to isolate variables and demonstrate whether a change in one factor (the cause) directly
leads to a change in another (the effect). This is often the ultimate goal.
To Discover New Phenomena: While typically designed to test a specific idea, experiments can
sometimes lead to unexpected observations or the discovery of entirely new phenomena, opening
new avenues of inquiry.
To Quantify Relationships: Experiments allow for precise measurement of how much one
variable affects another, leading to quantitative laws and models.
To Verify Existing Theories: Experiments can be conducted to confirm or refine established
scientific theories under new conditions or with greater precision.
Key Elements of a Controlled Experiment:
1. Independent Variable (IV): The factor that the experimenter intentionally manipulates or
changes. It's the "cause" that is being tested.
2. Dependent Variable (DV): The factor that is measured or observed to see if it changes in
response to the manipulation of the independent variable. It's the "effect."
3. Control Group: A group in the experiment that does not receive the treatment or
manipulation of the independent variable. It serves as a baseline for comparison, allowing
researchers to determine if the changes observed in the experimental group are truly due to the
independent variable.
4. Experimental Group(s): The group(s) that receive the treatment or manipulation of the
independent variable.
5. Controlled Variables (Constants): All other factors that could potentially influence the
dependent variable must be kept consistent (controlled) across all groups (experimental and
control). This ensures that any observed effect is solely due to the independent variable.
6. Random Assignment (in some cases): In experiments involving human or animal subjects,
participants are often randomly assigned to control or experimental groups to minimize bias and
ensure the groups are as similar as possible at the outset.
7. Replication: Experiments are designed to be repeatable. Other scientists should be able to
follow the same procedures and obtain similar results, which validates the findings.
Types of Experiments:
Laboratory Experiments: Conducted in highly controlled environments (like a lab) where
extraneous variables can be meticulously managed. They offer high internal validity (confidence
in cause-effect) but may have lower ecological validity (how well results apply to real-world
settings).
Field Experiments: Conducted in a natural, real-world setting. They offer higher ecological
validity but less control over extraneous variables.
Natural Experiments (or Quasi-Experiments): In these, the independent variable is not
directly manipulated by the researcher but occurs naturally (e.g., studying the effects of a natural
disaster, a policy change, or a pre-existing group difference). Researchers observe the outcomes.
While they can provide valuable insights, establishing pure cause-and-effect is more challenging
due to the lack of direct manipulation and random assignment.
Report Writing
This is about clearly and concisely communicating your research, methods, results, and
conclusions to a scientific audience. It follows a highly standardized structure to ensure
consistency, clarity, and ease of understanding.
General Principles before You Start:
Clarity and Conciseness: Use precise language. Avoid jargon where simpler terms suffice, and
if technical terms are necessary, define them. Get straight to the point.
Objectivity: Present your findings fairly and impartially. Avoid personal opinions or emotional
language.
Accuracy: Ensure all data, calculations, and references are correct.
Completeness: Provide enough detail for the reader to understand what you did and to
potentially replicate your work.
Target Audience: Assume your reader has a basic understanding of the scientific field, but don't
assume they know the specifics of your experiment.
Standard Structure of a Scientific Report (IMRAD format):
1. Title Page
Title:
Function: Concisely describes the content of the report. It should be informative and engaging,
but not overly long.
Tips: Include the key variables or the main phenomenon investigated. Avoid abbreviations.
Example: "The Effect of Different Soil Compositions on the Growth Rate of Maize (Zea mays)
Seedlings in Lusaka, Zambia"
Authors Name: Your full name(s).
Affiliation: Your institution, department, or course (e.g., "School of Natural Sciences, University
of Zambia" or "Grade 12 Biology, XYZ High School").
Date: Date of submission.
2. Abstract (or Executive Summary)
Function: A brief, self-contained summary of the entire report. It should allow readers to quickly
grasp the essence of your study without reading the full report.
Content: Typically includes:
 A sentence or two of background/context.
 The purpose/objective of the study.
 A brief overview of the methods used.
 The main results/findings (quantitative data where possible).
 The key conclusions or implications.
Tips:
 Usually 150-250 words.
 Written *last*, after all other sections are complete.
 No citations are typically included in the abstract.
3. Introduction
Function: Provides background information, states the purpose of the study, and presents the
hypothesis.
Content:
General Background: Start broad, introducing the scientific context relevant to your research.
Why is this topic important or interesting? (e.g., importance of maize in Zambia, factors
affecting crop yield).
Literature Review: Briefly summarize previous research and relevant theories. What is already
known about the topic? Point out any gaps in current knowledge that your research aims to fill.
Problem Statement/Rationale: Clearly state the specific problem or question your research
addresses.
Purpose/Objective: State the precise aim(s) of your study. What do you intend to achieve?
Hypothesis (or Hypotheses): State your testable prediction(s) about the outcome of the
experiment.
Example: It was hypothesized that maize seedlings grown in soil with a higher percentage of
organic matter would exhibit a significantly greater growth rate compared to those grown in
sandy or clay soils.

4. Materials and Methods (or Methodology)

Function: Describes exactly how the experiment was conducted, in enough detail for another
researcher to replicate it.
Content:
Experimental Design: Describe the overall setup. Was it a controlled experiment? What were
the independent and dependent variables? What were the control groups?
Materials: List all equipment, chemicals, organisms, and specific reagents used. Include brand
names, model numbers, and purity levels if relevant. Be specific about quantities and
concentrations.
Procedure: Describe the steps taken in chronological order, using clear, concise language and
past tense. Include:
 How samples were prepared.
 How measurements were taken.
 How variables were controlled.
 Any specific conditions (temperature, light, time).
 Number of replicates.
Statistical Analysis: Briefly state how the data was analyzed (e.g., "Data were analyzed using a
one-way ANOVA, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant.").
5. Results
Function: Presents the factual findings of your experiment without interpretation or discussion.
Content:
Text: Summarize the main findings in written paragraphs. State trends, patterns, and significant
observations. Refer to your figures and tables.
Tables: Use tables to present precise numerical data. Ensure they have clear titles, column
headers, and units.
Figures (Graphs, Charts and Images): Use figures to visually represent data and trends.
Ensure they have:
 Clear titles (captions).
 Labeled axes with units.
 Legends if necessary.
 Appropriate type of graph for the data (e.g., bar graph for categorical, line graph for
continuous data over time).
Tips:
 Present raw data only if specifically requested or if it's crucial for understanding;
otherwise, present processed data (e.g., averages, standard deviations).
 Avoid repetition between text, tables, and figures. The text should highlight what's
important in the visuals.
 Do NOT explain why something happened in this section.
6. Discussion
Function: Interprets your results, relates them to your hypothesis and existing literature, and
discusses their implications.
Content:
Interpretation of Results: Explain what your results mean. Do they support or refute your
hypothesis?
Comparison to Literature: Discuss how your findings compare to previous research cited in
your introduction. Do they align? Contradict? Offer new insights?
Limitations: Acknowledge any limitations or potential sources of error in your experimental
design or execution. How might these have affected your results?
Implications/Significance: Discuss the broader implications of your findings. Why are your
results important? What new knowledge have you contributed? (e.g., how the findings might
inform local farming practices in Zambia).
Future Research: Suggest avenues for future research based on your findings or limitations.
7. Conclusion
Function: A brief summary of the main findings and their implications, often reiterating the
answer to your research question.
Content:
 Restate your main finding(s) clearly and concisely.
 Briefly state whether your hypothesis was supported or rejected.
 Summarize the most significant implication or contribution of your study.
 *Often, a short conclusion is integrated into the final paragraph of the Discussion section.
8. References (or Bibliography)
Function: Lists all sources cited within your report.
Tips:
 Use a consistent citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago, Harvard, Vancouver – check
your instructor's or journal's requirements).
 Include all necessary information for each source (author, year, title, journal/book, volume,
pages, publisher, DOI/URL).

9. Appendices (Optional)
Function: Contains supplementary material that is too detailed or extensive to include in the
main body but is necessary for completeness or verification.
Content: Raw data, complex calculations, detailed protocols, questionnaires, large graphs,
photographs, etc.
Tips: Each appendix should be clearly labeled (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B) and referred to in
the main text.

Physical quantities
These are characteristics or properties of an object that can be measured or calculated from other
measurements or these are properties of objects or systems that can be measured and expressed
with a numerical value and a unit. Examples include length, mass, time, electric current,
temperature, amount of substance, and light intensity.
Measurable Properties:
Physical quantities are characteristics or properties of matter or energy that can be quantified
through measurement.
Numerical Value and Unit:
Every physical quantity has a numerical magnitude (the number) and a unit of measurement
(e.g., meters, kilograms, seconds).
SI Units:
The International System of Units (SI) provides a standard set of units for measuring physical
quantities.
Physical quantities are categorized into base quantities and derived quantities.

Type of quantities Basic quantity Derived quantity

Mass Speed
Length Volume
Time Area
Example Current Force
Temperature Velocity
Acceleration

They have only one SI They can be expressed by combining

Explanation unit. suitable base quantities.

Basic Quantities:
These are fundamental quantities that are not defined in terms of other quantities or they are
fundamental quantities which cannot be derived from other units. The seven base quantities are
length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity.
The value of a physical quantity is written as a number by a suitable unit. The International
System of Units is adopted in Physics. The following table shows some of SI units.
Physical SI unit Symbol for Example
quantity unit
Length metre m 100m
Mass kilogram kg 60kg
Time second s 30s
Current Ampere A 15A
Temperature Kelvin K 150K
These are quantities that are expressed in terms of base quantities. Examples include speed
(derived from length and time), area (derived from length and length), and volume (derived
from length, breadth, and height).
Prefixes
Sometime a physical quantity is too big or too small to be conveniently expressed in SI units.
Then some symbols are used as the prefixes instead of Zeros or many places. Prefixes are
multiples or decimals of ten. The following table shows some prefixes:

Prefixes Symbol Exponent Meaning Example

6
Mega M 10 1,000,000 3Mm = 3,000,000m
kilo k 103 1,000 5km = 5,000m
centi c 10-2 1/100 (=0.01) 2cm = 0.02m
Milli m 10-3 1/1000 (=0.001) 6mm = 0.006m
Micro μ 10-6 1/1000000 7μm = 0.000007m
(=0.000001)

Significant figures are digits or numbers which are regarded to be important in a

measurement i.e., they predict the accuracy of a measurement made by a particular
instrument. The following rules are considered when writing significant figures:

• All non-zero digits are significant

• All zeros trailing a non-zero digit are not significant
• All zeros between non-zero digits are significant
• All zeros leading a non-zero digit in a decimal point are not significant
• All zeros trailing a non-zero digit and a decimal point are significant