Mechanical Engineering Department, KNUST, APRIL 2013

FLUID DYNAMICS (ME 252)

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
Department of Mechanical Engineering

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE LEARNING,

BSc. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, TOP-UP

C.K.K. SEKYERE
 UNIT 1:FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW
2

OUTLINE
 Methods of describing fluid flow
 Types of fluid flow
 Rate of flow or discharge
 Continuity equation
 Velocity and acceleration
 Functions of the flow field
 Types of motion
 Vortex flow
C.K.K. SEKYERE; APRIL 2013
 UNIT1: INTRODUCTION
3
Unit 1 introduces:
 the fundamental concepts used in analysing fluid
flow
kinematics of fluid flow including
methods of determining velocity and acceleration
at any point in a flow field
flow rate, continuity equation, and functions of the
flow field including vortex flows

Unit 1
 Methods of describing fluid flow
4
Fluid motion is described by two methods:
Lagrangian Method, and
Eulerian Method
•Lagrangian Method: a single fluid particle is followed
during its motion and its velocity, acceleration, density, etc.
are described

•Eulerian method: the velocity, acceleration, pressure,

density, etc. are described at a point in a flow field

•The Eulerian method is commonly used in fluid mechanics.

Unit 1
 Types of Fluid Flow
Fluid flow is classified as:
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steady and unsteady flows;
uniform and non-uniform flows;
laminar and turbulent flows;
compressible and incompressible flows;
rotational and irrotational flows; and
one, two and three – dimensional flows.
Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid
characteristics like velocity, pressure, density, etc. at a point do not
change with time

……….(1.1)

Unit 1
Unsteady flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity, pressure or
density at a point change with respect to time
6
…………………..(1.2)

Uniform flow is defined as type of flow in which the velocity at any

given time does not change with respect to space (i.e. length or
direction of flow)
……………………………..(1.3)

Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any

given time changes with respect to space

……………………….(1.4)

Unit 1
 Observations show that two entirely different types of fluid flow
exist: laminar and turbulent flow
7

In laminar flow, fluid particles move along smooth paths in laminas,
or layers, with one layer gliding smoothly over an adjacent layer
 Laminar flow is governed by Newton’s law of viscosity (or extensions
of it to three-dimensional flow), which relates shear stress to rate of
angular deformation
 In laminar flow, the action of viscosity damps out turbulent
tendencies
Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in
a zig-zag way
owing to the erratic motion of the fluid particles, high energy losses
occur due to the formation of eddies in the flow

Unit 1
 For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional
number, Re = ρvD/μ
8

Re is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar

Re is more than 4000, it is called turbulent flow
Re lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow may be laminar or
turbulent
Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density (ρ) of
the flow is not constant for the fluid (i.e. ρ≠ constant)

Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant

for the fluid flow (i.e. ρ = constant)
 Liquids are generally incompressible while gases are compressible

Unit 1
 Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles
while flowing along stream-lines, also rotate about their own axis
9  if the fluid particles while flowing along stream-lines, do not
rotate about their own axis that type of flow is called irrotational
flow
One-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow
parameter such as velocity is a function of time and one space co-
ordinate only, say x
For a steady one-dimensional flow, the velocity is a function of one-
space-co-ordinate only
The variation of velocities in other two mutually perpendicular
directions is assumed negligible
Hence mathematically, for steady one-dimensional flow

u = f(x), v = 0, and w = 0 ………………………….(1.5)

Unit 1
 Two-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a
function of time and two rectangular space co-ordinates say x and y
For a steady two-dimensional flow the velocity is a function of two
10
space co-ordinates only
The variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible, hence,
U = f1(x,y), v= f2(x,y), and w = 0 ................................(1.6)
Three-dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the velocity is a
function of time and three mutually perpendicular directions, i.e.
u = f1(x,y,z), v = f2(x,y,z), and w = f3(x,y,z)........................(1.7)

RATE OF DISCHARGE
It is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a
section of a pipe or a channel
For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or discharge is
expressed as the volume of fluid flowing across the section per second
Unit 1
 Consider a liquid flowing through a pipe in which
A = Cross-sectional area of pipe
V = Average velocity of fluid across the section
11

Then discharge Q = AV ...............................(1.8)

CONTINUITY EQUATION
The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is
called continuity equation
Consider two cross-sections of a conduit as shown in Fig. 1, the
continuity equation states:

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 ……………………………………………………(1.9)

Unit 1
12

Fig. 1 Fluid flowing through a conduit

For incompressible flow, equ (1.9) becomes: A1V1 = A2V2

............(1.10
Unit 1
 CONTINUITY EQUATION IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

13

Fig. 2 Continuity in three dimensions

Unit 1
 Considering flow in the x direction,

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Mass inflow through ABCD in unit time  vx y z 1.11
  

Mass outflow through EFGH in unit time  x v   x    y z
 v  x 1.12
 x 


Thus, net outflow in unit time in x direction    vx   x y z 1.13
x
Similarly,

Net outflow in unit time in y direction 
y
 vy   x y z 1.14


Net outflow in unit time in z direction    vz   x y z 1.15
z

Therefore,

Unit 1
 Total net outflow in unit time
    
    vx     v y     vz    x y z 1.16
 x y z
15


Also, since ∂ρ/∂t is the change in density per unit time


Change of mass in control volume in unit time   x y z 1.17 
t

Total net outflow in unit time = Change of mass in control volume in

unit time
     
    vx     vy     vz    x y z    x y z 1.18
 x y z  t

   
or  vx    vy    vz   1.19
x y z t Unit 1
 Equation (1.19) holds for every point in a fluid flow whether steady
or unsteady, compressible or incompressible
16For incompressible flow

vx vy vz

  0 1.20
x y z

For two-dimensional incompressible flow this will simplify still further to

vx vy
 0 1.21
x y

Unit 1
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Let V be the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow
17  Let u, v and w be its components in x, y and z directions
 The velocity components are functions of space co-ordinates and
time
Mathematically, the velocity components are given as

u = f1(x,y,z,t)
v = f2(x,y,z,t) ...........................(1.22)
w = f3(x,y,z,t)
The resultant,

……….(1.23)

Let ax, ay, and az, be the total acceleration in x, y, and z directions
respectively
Unit 1
 By the chain rule of differentiation

…………….(1.24)
18

…………………(1.25)

…………………..(1.26)

Similarly

…………………..(1.27)

…………………..(1.28)

Unit 1
 For steady flow ∂V/∂t = 0, where V is the resultant

…………………..(1.29)
19

Hence acceleration in x, ∂V/∂t = 0 y and z directions become

becomes
…………………..(1.30)

…………………..(1.31)

Acceleration vector ………..(1.32)

Unit 1
 Local Acceleration is defined as the rate of increase of velocity
with respect to time at a given point in a flow field. In the energy
20
equation given by equation (1.30), the expression

is known as the local acceleration

Convective Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of

velocity due to the change of position of fluid particles in a fluid
flow

The expressions
u u u
u ;v ; and w
x y z

are convective acceleration terms Unit 1

 PROBLEM 1
The diameters of a pipe at the section 1 and 2 are 10 cm and 15 cm
21 respectively. Find the discharge through the pipe if the velocity of
water flowing through the pipe at section 1 is 5 m/s. Determine also
the velocity at section 2.
2
1

D1 =10 cm D2 = 15 cm

Fig. 3

SOLUTION
At section 1, D1 = 10 cm = 0.1 m

A1 = π(D1)2/4 = π(0.1)2/4 = 0.07854 m2

Unit 1
 At section 2, D2=15 cm=0.15 m
A1 = π(D2)2/4 = π(0.15)2/4 = 0.01767 m2
22
(i) Q = A1 x V1 = .007854 x 5 = 0.03927 m3/s. Ans.
Using equation (1.3), we have A1V1 = A2V2

(ii) V2 = A1V1/A2 = (0.007854X5.0)/(0.01767) = 2.22 m/s

PROBLEM 2
A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of
diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If the average velocity
in the 30 cm diameter pipe is 2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe.
Also determine the velocity in the 15 cm diameter pipe if the average
velocity in the 20 cm diameter pipe is 2 m/s.

Unit 1
 2
V2 = 2 m/s
D2 = 20 cm
V1= 2.5 m/S
23 D1 = 30 cm

1
Fig. 4 3
D3 = 15 cm
V3 = ?
SOLUTION
From the continuity equation for incompressible flow
Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3
A1V1= A2V2 + A3V3
(π/4)(D1)2V1 = (π/4)(D2)2V2 + (π/4)(D3)2V3
(π/4)(0.3)2(2.5) = (π/4)(0.2)2(20 + (π/4)(0.15)2V3
» V3 = 6.44 m/s

Unit 1
 PROBLEM 3
A jet of water from a 25 mm diameter nozzle is directed
24
vertically upwards. Assuming that the jet remains circular
and neglecting any loss of energy, what will be the
diameter at a point 4.5 m above the nozzle if the velocity
with which the jet leaves the nozzle is 12 m/s.

SOLUTION

Unit 1
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Fig. 5
Unit 1
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Unit 1
 PROBLEM 4
27

The velocity vector in a fluid flow is given.

V = 4x3i – 10x2yj + 2tk
Find the velocity and acceleration of a fluid particle at (2 ,1, 3 ) at
time t = 1

SOLUTION
The velocity components u, v and w are u = 4x3, v = -10x2y, w=2t

Unit 1
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Unit 1
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Unit 1
 PROBLEM 5
31

The following cases represent the two velocity components,

determine the third components of velocity such that they
satisfy the continuity equation:
(i)u = x2 + y2 + z2 ; v= xy2 – yz2 + xy
(ii)v = 2y2, w = 2xyz

SOLUTION

Unit 1
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Unit 1
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Unit 1 4/22/2013
 PROBLEM 6

34

A fluid flow field is given by:

V = x2yi + y2zj – ( 2xyz + yz2) k.
Prove that it is a case of possible steady incompressible fluid
flow. Calculate the velocity and acceleration at the point
(2,1,3).

SOLUTION

Unit 1
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Unit 1
36

Unit 1
 FUNCTIONS OF THE FLOW FIELD
37

THE VELOCITY POTENTIAL

Velocity Potential Function is defined as a scalar function of space
and time such that its negative derivative with respect to any
direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction

  
u  , v , w  ………………..(1.33)
x y z

where u, v and w are the components of velocity in x, y and z directions

respectively

Unit 1
 The continuity equation for an incompressible steady flow is

38 ………………..(1.34)

Substituting the values of u, v and w from into equ (1.34), we get

………………….(1.35)

Equation (1.35) is a Laplace equation

For a two-dimensional case the equation (1.35) reduces to
Unit 1
 ………………….(1.36)

Properties of the Potential Function: the rotational components are

39

given by
1  v u  1  u w  1  w v 
z     ; y     ; x     ….(1.37)
2  x y  2  z x  2  y z 

Substituting the values of u, v and w from equations (1.33) in the above

rotational components, we get

…….(1.38)

…….(1.39)

Unit 1
 …….(1.40)

40
If φ is a continuous function, then

…………………(1.41)

…………………(1.42)

When rotational components are zero, the flow is called irrotational

Hence the properties of the potential function are:
if velocity potential (φ) exists, the flow should be irrotational
 if velocity potential (φ) ) satisfies the Laplace equation, it represents
steady, incompressible irrotational flow

Unit 1
 STREAM FUNCTION
It is defined as the scalar function of space and time, such that its
41
partial derivative with respect to any direction gives the velocity
component at right angles to that direction
It is denoted by ψ and defined only for two-dimensional flow

Mathematically, for steady flow it is defined as ψ = f(x,y) such that

 
v and u ………………………….…..(1.43)
x y
The continuity equation for two-dimensional flow is

Substituting the values of u and v from equation (1.43), we get

Unit 1
42

Hence, existence of ψ means a possible case of fluid flow

The flow may be rotational or irrotational
The rotational component ωz is given by

1  v u 
z    
2  x y 

Substituting the values of u and v from equation (1.43) in the above

rotational component, we get
Unit 1
 …………………(1.44)

43

For irrotational flow, ωz = 0, hence above equation reduces to

………………………….(1.45)

Equ. (1.45) is a Laplace equation for ψ

Relation between Stream function and Velocity Potential Function.

VELOCITY POTENTIAL FUNCTION

  
u  , v  , w 
x y z
Unit 1
 STREAM FUNCTION
 
v and  u
x y
44

Thus, we have

…………...(1.46)

  …………………………….(1.47)
Hence,  
y x

Unit 1
 TYPES OF MOTION
A45 fluid particle while moving may undergo anyone or combination of the
following four types of displacements:

Linear Translation or Pure Translation

Linear Deformation
Angular Deformation
Pure rotation

Linear Translation is defined as the movement of a fluid element in

such a way that it moves bodily from one position to another position
and the two axed ab and cd represented in new positions by a’b’
and c’d’ are parallel as shown in fig. (6a)

Unit 1
46

Fig. 6 Linear or pure translation Fig. 6 pure rotation

(c) (d)
Linear deformation Angular deformation
Unit 1 4/22/2013
 Linear deformation is defined as the deformation of a fluid element
in linear direction when the element moves.
47
The axes of the element in the deformed position and un-deformed
position are parallel, but their lengths change as shown in Fig. 6 (c)

Angular deformation or shear deformation is defined as the

average change in the angles contained by two adjacent sides
Let Δθ1 and Δθ2 be the change in angle between two adjacent
sides of a fluid element as shown in Fig. 6 (d), then angular
deformation or shear strain rate

Unit 1
48

Unit 1
 Rotation is defined as the movement of a fluid element in such a way
that both of its axes (horizontal as well as vertical) rotate in the same
49direction as shown in Fig 6(b). It is equal to

1  v u  1  u w  1  w v 
z     ; y     ; x    
2  x y  2  z x  2  y z 

Vorticity is defined as the value twice of the rotation and hence it is

given as ξ=2ω

Unit 1
 VORTEX FLOW
Vortex flow is defined as the flow along a curved path or the flow
50 of a rotating mass of fluid is known as ‘Vortex Flow’. The vortex

flow is of two types namely:

Forced vortex flow
Free vortex flow

Forced Vortex Flow: Forced vortex flow is defined as that type of

vortex flow, in which some external torque is required to rotate the
fluid mass
The tangential velocity of any fluid particle is given by V = ωxr

where r = Radius of fluid particle from the axis of rotation

Unit 1
51

Fig. 7

Examples of forced vortex are:

1. A vertical cylinder containing liquid which is rotated about its
central axis with a constant angular velocity, ω, as shown in Fig. 7
2. Flow of liquid inside the impeller casing of a centrifugal pump.
3. Flow of water through the runner of a turbine.
Unit 1
 Free Vortex Flow: when no external torque is required to rotate the
fluid mass, that type of flow is called free vortex flow
52 thus the liquid in case of free vortex is rotating due to the rotation

which is imparted to the fluid previously

Examples of the free vortex are:

1. Flow of liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of a
container.
2. Flow of liquid around a circular bend in a pipe.
3. A whirlpool in a river.

The relation between velocity and radius, in free vortex is obtained

by putting the value of external torque equal to zero, or, the time rate
of change of angular momentum, ie., moment of momentum must be
zero

Unit 1
 Consider a fluid particle of mass ‘m’ at a radial distance r from the
axis of rotation, having a tangential velocity, v.
53Then

………..(1.48)

……(1.49)

……………………………..(1.50)

…………………….(1.51)

Unit 1
 Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow

54

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Figure 1.4

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Unit 1
 PROBLEM 7
The velocity potential function (φ) is given by an expression
61

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