PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING ➢ The individual learns when a previously

AND MOTIVATION neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an

unconditioned stimulus (US)until the
LEARNING neutral stimulus evokes a conditioned
response (CR).
➢ Involves the acquisition of new elements
of knowledge, skills, beliefs, and specific ➢ Includes the following:
behaviors, which may mean one or more 1. Stimulus Generalization –
of the following: gaining knowledge Responding the same way to a
(learning something), the knowledge similar stimulus
gained by virtue of that act (what is 2. Discrimination – Responding
known), the process of gaining knowledge differently to similar, but not
(learning how). identical stimuli
➢ Is a process by which behavior is either 3. Extinction - A process by
modified or wholly changed through which a
experience or training. conditioned response is lost
➢ It is an ongoing process of continued
adaptation to our environment, Edward Lee Thorndike’s Connectionism
assimilation of new information and ➢ Connectionism means learning by
accommodation of new input to fit prior selecting and connecting
knowledge. ➢ It puts emphasis on the organism, not
limiting himself to the association
LEARNING THEORIES between a stimulus and a response.
➢ They are sets of conjectures and
hypotheses that explain the process of Three Major Laws of Learning:
learning or how learning takes place. ➢ Law of Readiness – States that an
individual will learn when he is ready to
Principles of Learning do so. The learner should be
➢ Learning by doing is more effective than biologically prepared.
just sitting and listening ➢ Law of Exercise – States that a
➢ Concepts should be presented in varied or connection is strengthened or
different ways: through definition, weakened depending on the number of
discrimination, and context times it occurs and in proportion to the
➢ Learning is aided by formulating and average vigor and duration of the
asking questions connection. Practice alone is not
enough for improvement.
➢ Effort is put forth when tasks
a. Law of Use – connections
are challenging
between a stimulus and a
➢ The principle of readiness is related to the response are strengthened as
learners’ stage of development they are used.
b. Law of Disuse – connections
Learning Theories A. Behavioral/Learning
between a stimulus and a
Theory
response are weakened when
➢ It operates on the principle of practice is discontinued
“stimulus-response”
➢ Law of Effect – States when an
➢ Prefers to concentrate on actual or organism’s response is accompanied or
observable behavior followed by a satisfactory state, the
strength of the connection is increased.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s Classical If an annoying state accompanies or
Conditioning follows the response, the strength of
➢ Classical means “in an established the connection is decreased.
manner.”

CALEBCUTIE
 ➢ States that people learn through
observation, simulation, or modeling
(watching another, called a model and
later imitating the model’s behavior)
Burrhus Frederick Skinner’s Operant ➢ Concentrates on the power of example
Conditioning

➢ Stressed the use of pleasant or unpleasant Models may be classified into:

consequences in controlling the 1. Real-life – as exemplified by teachers,
occurrence of behavior. parents, and significant others
➢ Proved that reinforcement is a powerful 2. Symbolic – as presented through
tool in shaping and controlling behavior in oral/written symbols
and out of the classroom. 3. Representational – as presented
through audio-visual means.
Reinforcer – Any consequence that strengthens The Social-Cognitive/Observational
a behavior. It may be primary – related to basic Learning Theory stresses the importance
needs; secondary – value of something is of models because the observer-learner
acquired when associated with a primary may:
reinforcer; positive – consequence given to a. acquire new responses
strengthen a behavior; and negative – release b. strengthen or weaken
from an unpleasant situation to strengthen a every existing response
behavior. c. cause the reappearance of responses
Reinforcements – satisfying consequence may that
be classified into: have apparently been forgotten
➢ Verbal - praise, encouragement
➢ Physical - touches, pats, hugs Albert Bandura’s Social Learning
➢ Non-Verbal - smiles, winks, warm looks Theory
➢ Activity - being allowed to play games,
listen to music, etc. Involves Four Phases:
➢ Token - points, chips, stars ➢ Attention – mere exposure does not
➢ Consumable - cookies, soda, chocolates ensure acquisition of behaviour.
Observer must attend to and recognize
the distinctive features of the model’s
Formula for Reinforcement:
response.
1. Prompt
➢ Retention – reproduction of the
2. Response
desired behaviour implies that the
3. Reinforcement
student symbolically retain that
observed behaviour.
B. Cognitive Theories and Metacognition
➢ Motor Reproduction Process – after
1. Main focus is on memory
observation, have students
2. Prefer to concentrate on analyzing
demonstrate as soon as possible.
cognitive processes
Correct behaviour can be reinforced
3. Believe in non-observable behaviors while incorrect ones altered.
➢ Motivational Process – although
Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive/ observer acquires and retains ability to
Observational Learning Theory perform the modelled behaviour, there
will be no overt performance unless
➢ Known for his “Bobo doll” experiment conditions are favourable.

CALEBCUTIE
David Ausubel’s Meaningful Reception wrestling with questions and
Learning controversies or by performing
Theory experiments. The idea is that students
are more likely to remember concepts
➢ Concerned with how students learn large they discover on their own.
amounts of meaningful material from ➢ It contends that students should be
verbal/textual presentations in a school given a wide variety of examples of
setting. certain facts and information and
➢ Meaningful learning results when should be encouraged to discover the
answer or the underlying rules or
information is acquired by linking the new
principles.
information in the learner’s own cognitive
structure. ➢ Bruner’s view of learning is also called
“instrumental conceptualism”.
➢ Meaningful learning occurs when new
experiences are related to what a learner
Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory
already knows.
(or
➢ A major instructional mechanism proposed
Inquiry Method)
by Ausubel is the use of advance
organizers (different from overviews and
summaries which simply emphasize key ➢ Emphasizes that students should learn
ideas) that helps link new learning to recognize a problem, characterize
material with existing related ideas what a solution would be like, search
for relevant information, develop a
solution strategy and execute the
Meaningful learning may occur through:
chosen strategy.
a. Reception
b. Rote learning ➢ Believes that “you can’t teach people
everything they need to know.” The
c. Discovery learning
best thing to do is to position them
where they can find what they need to
➢ Reception Learning – is concerned about know when they need to know it.
the ways by which knowledge to be
learned is made available to the learner,
Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight
like presenting it in a well-organized
Learning/ProblemSolving Theory
fashion
➢ Discovery Learning – focuses on the
ways by which the learner incorporates
➢ Insight is the capacity to discern the
new information into his existing cognitive true nature of a situation; the
structure, like his identifying the key ideas imaginative power to see into and
and storing this information on his own. understand a situation immediately
➢ Gaining insight is a gradual process of
Jerome Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory exploring, analyzing, and restructuring
or perceptions until an appropriate
Inquiry Method/Theory of Instruction solution is arrived at
➢ The more intelligent a person and the
➢ Posits that learning by discovery is more more experience he has, the more
meaningful to learners when they have the capable he will be for gaining insight
opportunity to discover on their own the ➢ This theory held that animals and
relationships among the concepts or to human beings are capable of seeing
actively search for a solution to a problem relationships between objects and
➢ An approach to instruction through which events and that they act accordingly to
students interact with their environment achieve their needs. They have the
by exploring and manipulating objects, power to look into relationships

CALEBCUTIE
 involved in a problem and to come up with ➢ The value of short-term memory is that
a solution. it enables us to store information long
➢ Kohler’s studies on apes led him to enough to make sense of the words
conclude that learning is a result of and data we are dealing with at a
insightful solutions, and not blind trial and certain moment.
error. ➢ When we have rehearsed and
transformed input into meaningful
Richard Atkinson’s and Richard Shiffrin’s information, it then has a chance of
Information Processing Theory being encoded in the long-term
memory.
Maintains that the individual learns when the
human mind takes in information (encoding), Long-Term Memory
performs operations on it (decoding), stores the ➢ Passive, unconscious process as
information (storage), and retrieves it when differentiated from ShortTerm Memory,
needed (retrieval). which is active, dynamic, conscious.
➢ Memory – involves the ability to store ➢ Information enters slowly, not easily
information so that it can be used at a accessible, can be stored in unlimited
later time amounts, is retained indefinitely, not
easily disrupted.
Stages of Human Memory
1. Sensory Memory – information store that Cognitive psychologists have identified
holds an exact copy of the stimulus for a the three components of long-term
very short period of time, like color, shape, memory:
blowing of horns ➢ Episodic Memory – associated with
2. Short-Term Memory – the information our recall of particular times and
store that retains the information as we places and a storage place for many
consciously work on it, like our friend’s personal experiences.
telephone number ➢ Semantic Memory – knowledge of
3. Long-Term Memory – information store general facts, principles and concepts
that is relatively permanent that are not connected to a particular
time and place. Organized in networks
Short-Term Memory of connected ideas or relationships.
➢ Consists of what is in our consciousness at ➢ Procedural Memory – refers to
any given time. Constitutes the raw “knowing how” as opposed to
material needed for thinking which is “knowing that.”
referred to as “working memory.”
➢ New information is retained only for about Forgetting – is the temporary or long-term
20 seconds or so. Limited not only in the loss of a material that has been previously
length of time it can hold information but learned
also in capacity – 5 to 9 new items of
information. Theories of Forgetting
➢ Chunking (grouping of separate bits of ➢ Decay of Memory Traces –
information in a meaningful way) improves information stored in LTM gradually
capacity for short-term memory. fades when it is not used.
➢ Without continued rehearsal and use, this ➢ Retrieval – forgetting is due to lack or
information is generally lost from memory absence of retrieval cues
in about 20 seconds.

CALEBCUTIE
 ➢ Interference Effects – forgetting is still be further broken down to much
caused by what occurs before, during, or simpler tasks or skills
after learning
➢ Distortion of Memory Traces – Hierarchy of Learning
forgetting is due to inaccuracies in the ➢ Signal Learning – responding to a
acquisition and storage of information signal
➢ Motivated Forgetting – forgetting takes ➢ Stimulus-Response (SR) Learning –
place as a result of the individual’s voluntary responses are learned
motivation to forget, whether consciously ➢ Motor Chaining – two or more
or unconsciously. separate motor/verbal responses may
be combined or chained for a more
Teaching for Transfer (Gagne) complex response
➢ Transfer – to convey or cause to pass ➢ Verbal Association – verbal
from one place, person or thing to connections are used to create
another; to direct (a person) elsewhere for associations
help or information. ➢ Discrimination Learning – learner
➢ Retention – the ability to recall or selects or distinguishes a response
recognize what has been learned or which applies to a specific stimulus
experienced. ➢ Concept Learning – giving common
➢ Interference – an act or instance of responses to an entire class of stimuli
hindering, distracting, or impeding. ➢ Principle or Rule Learning –
➢ Forgetting – the apparent loss of involves combining and relating
information already encoded and stored in concepts
an individual’s long-term memory. ➢ Problem-Solving – considered the
most complex condition that leads

Transfer of Learning (Types) Nine Events of Instruction

➢ Lateral – occurs when the individual is 1. Gain attention
able to perform a new task at about the 2. Inform learner of objective/s
same level 3. Recall prior knowledge
➢ Vertical – occurs when the individual is 4. Present material
able to learn more advanced or complex 5. Provide guided learning
skills 6. Elicit performance
➢ Specific – when a certain skill, fact or rule 7. Provide feedback
is applied to a similar situation 8. Assess performance
➢ General – when previously learned 9. Enhance retention and transfer
principles are applied to dissimilar
situations Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
➢ Positive – when learning in one situation Theory
facilitates learning in another similar
situation According to Gardner, there are nine (9)
➢ Negative – when learning in one situation types of intelligence, each of which is
makes it difficult to learn, impedes or developed to different degrees in every
obstructs learning in another situation person:
1. Linguistic intelligence is one of the
Robert Gagne’s Cumulative Learning most studied human competencies. In
addition, it is one of the two basic
competencies broken down into
➢ Maintains that any task or skill can be
subcomponents icluding syntax,
broken down into simpler skills which can
semantics, and pragmatics, as well as

CALEBCUTIE
 more schooloriented skills such a written in a specific psychological environment
or oral expressions and understanding. at a specific time.
2. Logical-Mathematical intelligence has ➢ Life space concept- it is not always
the following subcomponents: deductive possible to draw accurate conclusions
reasoning, inductive reasoning, simply by observing overt behaviors.
computation, and the like. To understand behavior, it is often
3. Spatial intelligence entails the capacity essential to be “subjective” in the
to represent and manipulate spatial sense that the observer must see
configurations. The architect, engineer, things from the subject’s point of view
mechanic, navigator, sculptor, and chess at a given moment.
player all depend on spatial intelligence in
the work they undertake. Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence refers Theory
to the ability to use all or part of one’s
body (e.g., one’s hands or one’s mouth) to
➢ Bronfenbrenner is recognized in his
perform a task or fashion a product
field as the first person to propose that
5. Musical intelligence includes pitch child development be observed
discrimination, the ability to hear themes through the lens of a multidisciplinary
in music, sensitivity to rhythm, texture, approach which includes education and
and timbre, and the production of music the social sciences.
through performance or composition.
➢ He hypothesized that there are five
6. Intrapersonal intelligence refers to a
spheres that influence a child’s
person’s understanding of self. It includes
development, behavior, and
knowledge and understanding of one’s
personality and these he identified as
own cognitive strengths, intelligence,
the Microsystem, Mesosystem,
styles as well as his feelings and range of
Exosystem, Macrosystem, and
emotion.
Chronosystem.
7. Interpersonal intelligence entails the
ability to understand other individuals—
their actions and their movements. It also
Urie Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
includes the ability to act productively
Theory
based on that knowledge.
➢ Microsystem
8. Naturalistic intelligence refers to the
a. The setting in which an
ability to appreciate nature and to
individual
interconnect oneself with God’s creations.
lives – family,
9. Existential intelligence which is in the
peers, school,
process of active study, is indicative of the
neighborhood
individual’s sensitivity and capacity to
tackle deep questions about human b. Has the most direct interactions
existence, such as the meaning of life, with agents
why do we die, and how we got here. c. The individual is not passive
and
Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory helps construct settings
➢ Mesosystem
➢ This view is focused on the psychological ➢ Involves relations between
field or the life space of an individual microsystems, connections
between contexts relation of
➢ The life space of an individual consists of
family experiences to school
everything one needs to know about a
experiences, school to church,
person in order to understand his behavior
family to peers

CALEBCUTIE
 ➢ Examples: A child who ➢ Cognitive development is viewed as
experiences parental rejection may dependent on social mediation. The
have difficulty with school; certain child is socially dependent at the
peer influences may cause family beginning of his cognitive life and
turmoil becomes increasingly independent on
➢ Exosystem his thinking through many experiences
a. Consists of experiences in a social in which adults or older peers help
setting in which an individual does ➢ The child acquires new skills and
not have an active role, but which information with the zone of proximal
nevertheless influence experience development (ZPD), the level at which
in an immediate context the child finds a task too difficult to
b. Example: a parent's job complete alone, but which he can
experiences will affect family life accomplish with the assistance or
which, in turn, will affect children— support of an adult or older peer
travel requirements, job stress, ➢ This theory suggests that, in addition
amount of pay to providing a stimulating environment,
➢ Macrosystem early childhood educators need to
a. Includes the overall culture in promote discovery, explaining and
which an individual associates with providing suggestions to suit each
and lives within. child’s zone of proximal development
b. Involves attitudes/ideologies of the ➢ Scaffolding – competent assistance or
culture in which individuals live support through mediation of the
c. Examples: Judeo-Christian ethic, environment (significant or
democracy, ethnicity knowledgeable others) in which
➢ Chronosystem cognitive, socio-emotional and
a. Implies the patterning of behavioral development can occur
environmental events and
transitions over the life course; David Kolb’s Learning Styles
effects created by time or critical
periods in development Learning Styles – are tools utilized by
b. Example: disruptive effects of learners to cope with and adjust to the
divorce peak one year after the learning environment
divorce, with effects more negative ➢ Convergers – rely on experimenting.
for sons than for daughters They like to find specific, concrete
(Hetherington, 1989) answers and move quickly to solution;
c. Includes sociohistorical conditions they are unemotional, since they prefer
to deal with things rather than with
Lev Semanovich Vygotsky’s Social people.
Constructivism/Sociohistoric Theory ➢ Assimilators – rely most on abstract
generalizing and reflective observation.
Interested in theoretical concerns than
➢ Vygotsky is a Russian psychologist who
in applications.
highly stressed the importance of the
social environment to development ➢ Divergers – rely on general
experience and active participation.
➢ Social interaction is the way in which
They generate ideas and enjoy working
children develop increasingly more
with people.
complex thinking. Children gain knowledge
and skills through “shared experiences” ➢ Accommodators – rely on concrete
between themselves and adults or older experience and active
peers experimentation. They are risk-taking,
action-oriented and adaptable in new
situations.

CALEBCUTIE
 Principles of Motivation
Types of Learners ● The environment can be used to focus
➢ Auditory – prefer to learn by listening the student’s attention to what needs
(use of lectures, singing, recitation) to be learned.
➢ Visual – prefer printed materials (use of ● Incentives motivate learning.
reading/responding to visual cues like ● Internal motivation is longer lasting
chalkboards or transparencies, powerpoint and more self-directed than is
presentations, textbooks and pictures) external motivation, which must be
repeatedly reinforced by praise or
➢ Tactile – like to manipulate objects (use of
concrete rewards.
laboratory method or hands-on activities,
tracing, cutting, touching objects) ● Listening is most effective when an
individual is ready to learn, that is,
➢ Kinesthetic or Whole-Body – like to
when one wants to know something.
learn through experiential activities (use of
● Motivation is enhanced by the way in
simulations, role-playing, exploratory
which the instructional material is
activities and problem-solving approach
organized.
PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Theories of Motivation 1. Drive Theory
(Clark Hull)
Types of Motivation
● Drive is a condition of arousal
● If students perceive themselves as
or tension that motivates
completing assignment solely to attain
behaviour.
rewards, they may develop a
“piecework mentality” or “minimum
● Drives most typically have been
considered to involve
strategy” in which they concentrate on
physiological survival needs:
maximizing rewards by meeting minimum
hunger, thirst, sleep, pain, sex.
standards rather than by doing an
excellent job as its own reward. ● A drive results from the
activation of a need.
● Intrinsic Motivation – when students
study because they enjoy the subject and ● Need – a physiological
desire to learn it, irrespective of the praise deficiency that creates
won or grades earned, the reason for a condition of
learning resides primarily inside or upon disequilibrium in the body.
themselves. 2. Self-Efficacy (Albert Bandura)
● Self-efficacy – It is the belief
that one has the capabilities to
Types of Motivation execute the courses of
action required to
● Is fuelled by one’s own goal or ambitions.
manage prospective situations.
● Self-starting, self-perpetuating and
requires only an inward interest to keep
● Self-efficacy relates to a
person’s perception of his
the motivational machinery going.
ability to reach a
● The use of rewards as extrinsic motivation
goal while self-esteem relates
has sometimes been found to increase
to a person’s sense of self-
intrinsic motivation, something that is
worth.
likely to happen when the rewards are
contingent on the quality of performances ● Self-efficacy affects people’s
as opposed to simply participating in an behaviour including their:
activity. ➢ choice of activities
➢ Goals
➢ efforts and persistence

CALEBCUTIE
 ➢ learning and achievement 5. Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
● People’s various explanations for
Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy success and failure – their beliefs about
● Previous successes and failures what causes attributions.
● Messages from others ● Dimensions underlying people’s
● Successes and failures of others attributions. People can explain events
● Successes and failures of the group as a in many different ways. For example, a
whole tennis player may attribute his wins
3. Self-Determination (E. Deci) and successes in matches to things like
– luck, health, effort, mood, strengths
● Self-Determination - comes from
and weaknesses of his opponents,
the sense of autonomy that a
climate, his fans, etc.
person has when it comes to things
that he does and the choices he ● Attributions of people are affected by
makes. three dimensions:
● To task for a long period of time ➢ Locus: (Place) Internal vs.
● To think meaningfully and External
creatively about those tasks ➢ Internal – factors within
● To experience pleasure in one’s ourselves
activities ➢ External – factors beyond our
● To achieve at a higher level control
● We have the capacity to take risks
or challenges that can enrich our Attribution Theory (B. Weiner)
lives and develop ourselves more. ● Temporal Stability: Stable vs. Unstable
● Stable – things that probably won’t
There are several variables that influence change much in the near future
people’s sense of self determination one way or ● Unstable – things that can change from
the other time to time
● Choices ● Controllability: Controllable vs.
● Threats and deadlines ● Controlling Uncontrollable
statements ● Controllable – things we can influence
● Extrinsic reward and change
● Surveillance and evaluation ● Uncontrollable – things over which we
4. Expectancies and Values (Atkinson) have no influence
Motivation to perform is affected by two
variables: General Ways of Motivating People
A. Expectancy – people must believe that ● Motivation by goal-setting – Helping
they can accomplish a task, that is, they people to dream, envision and set
should have expectancy about what they reasonable goals and break down
want to achieve. longterm goals into shorter increments
B. Value – they should place an importance is helpful.
or value in what they are doing ● Motivation by focus – Many may feel
inspired by focusing on a symbol of
success, such as a happy family, a
Several factors affecting expectancy: dream house, a stable job.
● Previous triumphs and failures ● Motivation by music – Music may have
● Perceived difficulty of a task the power to motivate people since it
● One’s general work habits moves or inspires and appeals
to emotional well-being.
● Environmental resources
● Motivation by enticement – Giving
● Quality of instruction
some sort of external rewards, such as
● Anticipated effort necessary to succeed
good or better grades, bonus for

CALEBCUTIE
 overtime work, public recognition, more ● Competition – can enhance or reduce
money, etc. may build enthusiasm to motivation depending on how it is
some extent. used. It is good for some, but it may
result in a few winners and many
General Ways of Motivating People losers. Using it for some purpose may
● Motivation by force – To get workers, be beneficial, but the focus should not
players, students, etc. to follow their always be on outperforming the
leader, the use of force or threat of force competitor/s
may be unavoidable. It must be used
wisely and discreetly in a democratic THE COGNITIVE LOAD THEORY
society.
● Motivation by identification or ego- In cognitive psychology, cognitive load is the
involvement – The best way to motivate effort being used in the working memory.
people is to bring them to work or to study According to work conducted in the field of
or to make them contribute to group instructional design and pedagogy, broadly,
objectives not because they have to, but there are three types of cognitive load:
because they want to. When they identify ● Intrinsic cognitive load is the effort
themselves with the goals of the group to associated with a specific topic.
which they belong, it contributes to their ● Germane cognitive load refers to the
self-respect or self-esteem and gain the work put into creating a permanent
confidence of others upon them. store of knowledge (a schema).
● Extraneous cognitive load refers to the
Techniques in Motivating Learners way information or tasks are presented
● Challenge them. Offer students to a learner.
opportunities to undertake real challenges.
● Encourage them to take intellectual However, over the years, the additivity of
risks. these types of cognitive load has been
● Build on strengths first. Seize opportunity investigated and questioned. Now it is
to use their talents to achieve success. believed that they circularly influence each
● Offer choices. Offering choices develop other. Cognitive load theory was developed in
ownership. When a child makes decisions the late 1980s out of a study of problem
he is more likely to accept ownership and solving by John Sweller, who argued that
control of the results. instructional design can be used to reduce
● Provide a secure environment. Permit cognitive load in learners. Much later, other
children to fail without penalty. Learning researchers developed a way to measure
how to deal with failure is critical for perceived mental effort which is indicative of
developing motivation and successful cognitive load. Task-invoked pupillary
learning. response is a reliable and sensitive
● Teach them how to make their tasks more measurement of cognitive load that is directly
manageable. related to working memory.
● Narrowing the topic to a challenging but
manageable size is very important for Information may only be stored in long term
developing motivation. memory after first being attended to, and
● Teach students to evaluate themselves. processed by, working memory. Working
Self-evaluation needs to address the memory, however, is extremely limited in
questions: “What was done well?” and both capacity and duration. These limitations
“How will, under some conditions, impede learning.
Heavy cognitive load can have negative
can it be improved?”
effects on task completion, and the
experience of cognitive load is not the same

CALEBCUTIE
in everyone. The elderly, students, and children solving strategy called
experience different, and more often higher, means-ends analysis.
amounts of cognitive load. ● He suggests problem solving by
means-ends analysis requiring a
The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is relatively large amount of cognitive
that the quality of instructional design will be processing capacity, which may not be
raised if greater consideration is given to the role devoted to schema construction.
and limitations of working memory. With Sweller suggested that instructional
increased distractions, particularly from cell designers should prevent this
phone use, students are more prone to unnecessary cognitive load by
experiencing high cognitive load which can designing instructional materials which
reduce academic success. do not involve problem solving.
● Examples of alternative instructional
Theory materials include what are known as
● In the late 1980s, John Sweller developed worked-examples and goal-free
cognitive load theory out of a study of problems, which are open-ended
problem solving, in order "to provide problems that allow students to
guidelines intended to assist in the explore and discover different
presentation of information in a manner solutions. They are also aligned with
that encourages learner activities that the national curriculum, so that
optimize intellectual performance". teachers can be sure that they are
Sweller's theory employs aspects of relevant to what their students are
information processing theory to learning.
emphasize the inherent limitations of ● In the 1990s, cognitive load theory was
concurrent working memory load on applied in several contexts. The
learning during instruction. It makes use of empirical results from these studies led
the schema as primary unit of analysis for to the demonstration of several
the design of instructional materials. learning effects: the
completionproblem effect in the load
History cognitive theory refers to the
● The history of cognitive load theory can be phenomenon where the difficulty of a
traced to the beginning of cognitive task increases when there is a
science in the 1950s and the work of G.A. mismatch between the information
Miller. In his classic paper, Miller was presented and the information needed
perhaps the first to suggest that our to complete the task; the modality
working memory capacity has inherent effect where modality is the perceptual
limits. His experimental results suggested mode used to present information.
that humans are generally able to hold ● The modality effect occurs when
only seven plus or minus two units of information presented in a
information in short-term memory. supplementary visual and audio
● In 1973 Simon and Chase were the first to presentation results in greater learning
use the term "chunk" to describe how than when it is presented using a
people might organize information in single modality, either visually alone,
short-term memory. This chunking of or auditory alone.; splitattention effect,
memory components has also been which is a learning effect inherent
described as schema construction. within some poorly designed
● In the late 1980s John Sweller developed instructional materials.
cognitive load theory (CLT) while studying ● It is apparent when the same modality
problem solving. Studying learners as they (e.g. visual) is used for various types of
solved problems, he and his associates information within the same display.
found that learners often use a problem Users must split their attention
between the materials, for example, an

CALEBCUTIE
 image and text, to understand the
information being conveyed. The
splitattention effect can occur physically
through visual and auditory splits and
temporally when time distances two
pieces of information that should be
connected; worked-example effect, which
utilizes a strategy that helps students
acquire new knowledge with as little
mental effort as possible based on the
“borrowing and re-organizing principle”—
an inherent way of processing information.
● This worked-example approach helps
students borrow new information from
their teacher, and re-organize it with any
prior knowledge before moving it into their
long-term memory ; and expertise reversal
effect, which refers to how novices and
experts learn. When novices are learning
they do not have a mental framework or
schema about the subject.
● In other words, they do not understand
how everything fits together and relates to
each other, or how to critically think about
the topic. Experts on the other hand do.
The expertise reversal effect comes from
research which shows that novices need
step by step instruction, teachers, and
simple learning tasks with little variability
until they know how to think about the
topic. Experts on the other hand learn best
from having little teaching/instruction and
learning tasks that are much more
variable. In other words, they reverse the
normal learning processes.

CALEBCUTIE